Advanced Spanish
Refine advanced Spanish with 250 nuanced words for academic, professional, cultural, and sophisticated everyday communication.
At C1, vocabulary gives you control over nuance, tone, and emphasis. These entries support demanding conversations and texts without sounding needlessly ornate. Study the meaning and the communicative purpose of each example together.
Weigh evidence, qualify claims, and support or dismantle an argument with precision.
to weigh up; to consider carefully
El jurado sopesó la solidez de cada testimonio antes de emitir el veredicto.
The jury weighed up the strength of each testimony before reaching its verdict.
Usage note Used with pros and cons, risks or options: «sopesar las ventajas y los inconvenientes». More deliberate than «pensar».
to qualify; to add nuance to
La autora matizó su conclusión al reconocer que la muestra era demasiado reducida.
The author qualified her conclusion by acknowledging that the sample was too small.
Usage note Softens or refines a claim without withdrawing it. «Hay que matizar» is a polite way to begin a partial disagreement.
to infer; to deduce
A partir de las huellas, los investigadores infirieron que el intruso había entrado por la ventana.
From the footprints, the investigators inferred that the intruder had entered through the window.
Usage note Stem-changing (infiero, infirió). Usually «inferir algo de/a partir de algo». Do not confuse with «inferir un daño» (to inflict).
to refute; to disprove
El segundo ensayo clínico refutó la hipótesis al no reproducir el efecto observado.
The second clinical trial refuted the hypothesis by failing to reproduce the observed effect.
Usage note Means proving a claim false with evidence or reasoning, not merely denying it; for a simple denial use «negar» or «rechazar».
to cite (as a reason); to put forward
La compañía adujo problemas técnicos para justificar la cancelación repentina del servicio.
The company cited technical problems to justify the sudden cancellation of the service.
Usage note Irregular like «conducir»: aduzco, aduje, adujeron. Often introduces a reason others may doubt: «adujo motivos personales».
to put forward (an argument); to wield
El sindicato esgrimió el aumento del coste de vida para exigir mejores salarios.
The union put forward the rising cost of living to demand better wages.
Usage note Literally «to wield» a weapon; figuratively collocates with «argumento», «razón» or «pretexto», often with a combative tone.
to elucidate; to clear up
La comisión abrió una investigación para dilucidar quién había autorizado aquellos pagos.
The committee opened an investigation to clear up who had authorized those payments.
Usage note Used for questions that are unclear or disputed: «dilucidar las causas, las responsabilidades». Typical of reports and journalism.
to discern; to distinguish
Con tantas versiones contradictorias, resulta difícil discernir los hechos de las simples especulaciones.
With so many conflicting accounts, it is hard to distinguish the facts from mere speculation.
Usage note Stem-changing (discierno). Common pattern: «discernir A de B» or «discernir entre A y B».
to corroborate; to confirm
Los mensajes corroboraron el relato que la testigo había ofrecido a la policía.
The messages corroborated the account that the witness had given to the police.
Usage note Implies independent confirmation of something already claimed; «confirmar» is the neutral everyday choice.
to discredit
La defensa intentó desacreditar al perito señalando sus vínculos con la empresa acusada.
The defense tried to discredit the expert by pointing out his ties to the accused company.
Usage note Targets a person's or source's credibility; the reflexive «desacreditarse» means to lose credibility through one's own actions.
to presuppose; to assume
Su argumento presupone que todos los ciudadanos tienen el mismo acceso a la información.
Her argument presupposes that all citizens have the same access to information.
Usage note Conjugated like «poner» (presupuse). Its participle «presupuesto» is also the noun for «budget».
to object; to raise as an objection
Nadie objetó nada cuando la presidenta propuso aplazar la votación hasta el lunes.
No one objected when the chair proposed postponing the vote until Monday.
Usage note Transitive in Spanish: «objetar algo» or «objetar que…». «No tener nada que objetar» means to have no objections.
to concede; to grant
La ponente concedió ese punto a su rival sin abandonar la tesis central de su intervención.
The speaker conceded that point to her opponent without abandoning the central thesis of her talk.
Usage note In debate, admitting part of an opponent's case; elsewhere, granting something: «conceder un premio, una entrevista, un préstamo».
to clarify; to specify
La portavoz puntualizó que el acuerdo solo tendría vigencia durante los primeros seis meses.
The spokesperson clarified that the agreement would only remain in force for the first six months.
Usage note Adds a precise correction or detail to what was said. Not «to punctuate» (that is «puntuar»).
to break down; to itemize
El presupuesto desglosa los gastos de personal, transporte y alojamiento de cada delegación.
The budget breaks down the staff, transport and accommodation costs of each delegation.
Usage note Used for figures, costs and arguments. The noun «el desglose» means a breakdown or itemization.
to extrapolate
No podemos extrapolar estos resultados a toda la población sin una muestra mucho más amplia.
We cannot extrapolate these results to the whole population without a much larger sample.
Usage note Usually «extrapolar algo a otro ámbito». Often appears in warnings about generalizing beyond the evidence.
to recap; to sum up
Antes de abrir el turno de preguntas, la moderadora recapituló los principales argumentos del debate.
Before opening the floor to questions, the moderator summed up the main arguments of the debate.
Usage note Common as a spoken signpost: «Recapitulemos:» or «Para recapitular…» before a summary.
to substantiate; to base
El abogado fundamentó su petición en dos sentencias recientes del Tribunal Supremo.
The lawyer based his petition on two recent Supreme Court rulings.
Usage note Pattern: «fundamentar algo en/con algo». Compare B2 «el fundamento» (basis) and «bien fundamentado».
to postulate; to put forward
El artículo postula una relación directa entre la memoria autobiográfica y los espacios habitados.
The article postulates a direct link between autobiographical memory and inhabited spaces.
Usage note Academic verb for proposing a theory. In Latin America «postularse» also means to run for office or apply for a job.
caveat; exception
El informe respalda el proyecto, con la salvedad de que se revise su impacto ambiental.
The report backs the project, with the caveat that its environmental impact be reviewed.
Usage note Typical phrases: «con la salvedad de que» (+ subjunctive) and «hacer una salvedad». Related to «salvo» (except).
sign; indication; circumstantial evidence
Hay indicios de que alguien manipuló los registros antes de la llegada de los auditores.
There are signs that someone tampered with the records before the auditors arrived.
Usage note Suggests without proving. In legal contexts «indicios» is circumstantial evidence, weaker than «pruebas».
finding; confirmation
La constatación de que el edificio carecía de licencia obligó a paralizar la obra.
The finding that the building had no permit forced work to be halted.
Usage note Noun from «constatar» (to establish or confirm a fact). Very frequent in reports: «la constatación de que…».
Describe methods, evidence and limitations the way theses, reports and scientific articles do.
to conceptualize
El ensayo conceptualiza la frontera como un espacio de intercambio y no como una línea fija.
The essay conceptualizes the border as a space of exchange rather than a fixed line.
Usage note Academic register. Often «conceptualizar X como Y». In everyday speech «entender» or «plantear» sounds more natural.
to problematize; to question
El documental problematiza la idea de que todo crecimiento económico implica bienestar social.
The documentary questions the idea that all economic growth brings social well-being.
Usage note Humanities jargon for exposing hidden assumptions in a concept. Outside academia, prefer «cuestionar».
to rank; to prioritize
El equipo jerarquizó las solicitudes según su urgencia y su posible repercusión social.
The team ranked the requests according to their urgency and possible social impact.
Usage note Orders items by importance. «Priorizar» (B2) focuses on what comes first; «jerarquizar» on the whole ranking.
to gather; to collect (data, support)
Durante tres meses, el equipo recabó testimonios de más de doscientas familias desplazadas.
Over three months, the team gathered testimony from more than two hundred displaced families.
Usage note Collocates with «información», «datos», «firmas», «apoyos». Spelled with b; do not confuse with «recavar» (to dig again).
bias
Un sesgo en la selección de participantes puede invalidar las conclusiones de todo el estudio.
A bias in participant selection can invalidate the conclusions of the entire study.
Usage note Common collocations: «sesgo de confirmación», «sesgo de género», «sesgo ideológico». Adjective: «sesgado».
stratified sampling
Gracias al muestreo estratificado, las zonas rurales quedaron representadas en la encuesta nacional.
Thanks to stratified sampling, rural areas were represented in the national survey.
Usage note Technical term from statistics. «El muestreo» is the sampling process; «la muestra» is the sample itself.
confounding factor
Los investigadores descartaron la edad como factor de confusión antes de publicar el análisis.
The researchers ruled out age as a confounding factor before publishing the analysis.
Usage note Also called «variable de confusión». A third factor that distorts an apparent relationship between two variables.
theoretical framework
Su tesis adopta un marco teórico que combina la sociología urbana con los estudios de género.
Her thesis adopts a theoretical framework that combines urban sociology with gender studies.
Usage note Standard section of a thesis in Spanish-speaking universities, usually after «el estado de la cuestión».
state of the art; literature review
El primer capítulo presenta el estado de la cuestión sobre la vivienda rural en la región.
The first chapter presents the state of research on rural housing in the region.
Usage note Fixed academic term for a critical review of existing research. In Latin America «estado del arte» is also common.
empirical support
La teoría resulta atractiva, pero su sustento empírico sigue siendo sorprendentemente limitado.
The theory is appealing, but its empirical support is still surprisingly limited.
Usage note «Sustento» means support or basis (also livelihood: «ganarse el sustento»). «Carecer de sustento empírico» is a common criticism.
fieldwork
La antropóloga pasó seis meses de trabajo de campo en comunidades de la sierra.
The anthropologist spent six months doing fieldwork in mountain communities.
Usage note Research done on site rather than in a library or lab. Usually «hacer/realizar trabajo de campo».
peer review
El artículo tardó un año en publicarse porque la revisión por pares exigió nuevos experimentos.
The article took a year to be published because peer review demanded new experiments.
Usage note Also «evaluación por pares». A journal «con revisión por pares» is peer-reviewed.
replicability
La falta de replicabilidad de varios experimentos famosos ha sacudido a la psicología social.
The lack of replicability of several famous experiments has shaken social psychology.
Usage note Whether an independent team can obtain the same result. Often discussed with «reproducibilidad», a close synonym.
correlation
Encontraron una correlación entre horas de sueño y rendimiento, pero no demostraron causalidad.
They found a correlation between hours of sleep and performance, but did not prove causation.
Usage note Classic warning: «correlación no implica causalidad». Collocates with «existir», «establecer», «positiva/negativa».
corpus
El corpus reúne más de tres mil discursos parlamentarios pronunciados durante cuatro décadas.
The corpus brings together more than three thousand parliamentary speeches delivered over four decades.
Usage note Invariable plural: «los corpus». A defined collection of texts or recordings used for analysis.
primary source
Las cartas del alcalde son una fuente primaria que contradice la versión oficial de los hechos.
The mayor's letters are a primary source that contradicts the official version of events.
Usage note Produced at the time being studied; contrasts with «fuente secundaria», which analyzes or interprets primary material.
gap (in knowledge, in the law)
El estudio pone al descubierto una laguna importante en la legislación sobre inteligencia artificial.
The study exposes a significant gap in the legislation on artificial intelligence.
Usage note Literally a lagoon. Figuratively «laguna legal», «lagunas de conocimiento» or «tener lagunas» (memory gaps).
parameter; criterion
El comité fijó los parámetros que debían cumplir los proyectos para recibir financiación pública.
The committee set the criteria that projects had to meet to receive public funding.
Usage note Beyond statistics, it often means criteria or limits: «dentro de los parámetros normales».
estimate; estimation
Según las estimaciones más prudentes, la sequía reducirá la cosecha de trigo en un tercio.
According to the most cautious estimates, the drought will cut the wheat harvest by a third.
Usage note Collocates with «según», «prudente», «al alza/a la baja». Also means esteem: «le tengo gran estimación».
cohort
La investigación siguió a una cohorte de niños nacidos en 2000 hasta su vida adulta.
The research followed a cohort of children born in 2000 into adulthood.
Usage note In research, a group sharing a defining feature, followed over time. «Estudio de cohortes» means cohort study.
qualitative approach
El enfoque cualitativo permitió entender por qué muchas familias rechazaban las ayudas disponibles.
The qualitative approach made it possible to understand why many families turned down the available aid.
Usage note Contrasts with «enfoque cuantitativo»; «métodos mixtos» combines both. «Enfoque» means approach or focus.
limitation
Entre las limitaciones del estudio, los autores reconocen el reducido tamaño de la muestra.
Among the study's limitations, the authors acknowledge the small sample size.
Usage note A standard section of academic papers: «limitaciones del estudio». «Sin limitaciones» means unrestricted.
incidence; impact; incident
La incidencia de la gripe se duplicó en tres semanas, según los datos del ministerio.
The incidence of flu doubled in three weeks, according to ministry data.
Usage note In health, the rate of new cases. It also means impact («tener incidencia en») or a minor incident or glitch.
feasibility; viability
Antes de invertir, el ayuntamiento encargó un estudio sobre la viabilidad económica del tranvía.
Before investing, the city council commissioned a study on the economic feasibility of the tram.
Usage note Frequent in «estudio de viabilidad» (feasibility study). The adjective is «viable» (B2).
exhaustive; thorough
Necesitamos un inventario exhaustivo de las obras antes de valorar los daños del incendio.
We need a thorough inventory of the works before assessing the fire damage.
Usage note Means complete and detailed, not tiring (that is «agotador»). The adverb «exhaustivamente» is common in reports.
Follow legislation, courts, elections and institutional conflict in quality news and official texts.
to file an appeal
La asociación de vecinos interpuso un recurso contra la licencia concedida al centro comercial.
The residents' association filed an appeal against the permit granted to the shopping center.
Usage note Conjugated like «poner» (interpuse). Also «interponer una demanda/denuncia». «Recurrir» is a shorter alternative.
to dismiss; to reject (a claim, an appeal)
El tribunal desestimó la demanda por considerar que los plazos habían prescrito.
The court dismissed the lawsuit on the grounds that the time limits had expired.
Usage note Standard legal verb for rejecting a claim, appeal or proposal. Also used for ideas: «desestimar una opción».
to repeal; to abrogate
El parlamento abrogó la disposición después de que el tribunal la declarara inconstitucional.
Parliament repealed the provision after the court declared it unconstitutional.
Usage note Formal legal term. «Derogar» is more frequent for laws in Spain; «abrogar» implies total repeal.
to amend; to correct
La oposición logró enmendar el artículo que limitaba el derecho de reunión.
The opposition managed to amend the article that restricted the right of assembly.
Usage note Stem-changing (enmiendo). The noun is «la enmienda». «Enmendar un error» means to put right a mistake.
to ratify; to confirm
El Senado ratificó el tratado comercial tras incorporar las enmiendas negociadas con los socios.
The Senate ratified the trade treaty after incorporating the amendments negotiated with the partners.
Usage note Used for treaties and agreements, and for confirming a statement: «ratificarse en su declaración» (to stand by it).
to audit; to oversee
El tribunal de cuentas fiscaliza cómo gastan los partidos las subvenciones públicas.
The court of auditors oversees how parties spend public subsidies.
Usage note Supervision by an authority. Related to «el fiscal» (prosecutor) but not about prosecuting.
to incur; to commit (an error, an offense)
El alcalde incurrió en una contradicción al negar lo que había firmado semanas antes.
The mayor contradicted himself by denying what he had signed weeks earlier.
Usage note Always with «en»: «incurrir en un delito, un error, una falta, gastos». Formal and very common in legal texts.
to evade; to avoid
El ministro eludió responder a la pregunta sobre la financiación del partido.
The minister avoided answering the question about the party's funding.
Usage note Implies skillful avoidance: «eludir responsabilidades», «eludir impuestos» (tax avoidance; evasion is «evadir»).
to redistribute
La reforma fiscal pretende redistribuir la riqueza mediante impuestos más progresivos.
The tax reform aims to redistribute wealth through more progressive taxes.
Usage note Like «distribuir», it inserts y: redistribuyo, redistribuyó. Noun: «la redistribución de la renta».
to decentralize
La reforma descentralizó la gestión sanitaria y otorgó más competencias a las regiones.
The reform decentralized healthcare management and gave more powers to the regions.
Usage note Frequent in debates on regional autonomy. «Competencias» here means legal powers, not skills.
to consolidate; to strengthen
La victoria electoral consolidó al partido como la principal fuerza de la oposición.
The election victory consolidated the party as the main opposition force.
Usage note Makes a position or process durable. «Consolidarse como» (to establish oneself as) is very frequent in the press.
rule of law
Sin jueces independientes, el estado de derecho se convierte en una fórmula vacía.
Without independent judges, the rule of law becomes an empty formula.
Usage note Often capitalized as «Estado de derecho». Refers to the principle, not to a particular state or country.
judicial protection
La Constitución garantiza la tutela judicial efectiva de todas las personas, sin excepción.
The Constitution guarantees effective judicial protection for all people without exception.
Usage note Mostly in «tutela judicial efectiva», a core right in Spanish law. «La tutela» alone also means guardianship.
governance
Los expertos reclaman una gobernanza global del agua que implique a gobiernos y empresas.
Experts are calling for global water governance that involves governments and companies.
Usage note Broader than «gobierno»: how public and private actors jointly manage an issue. Frequent in EU and NGO texts.
register of residents; electoral roll
Para matricular a su hija, tuvo que inscribirse primero en el padrón municipal.
To enroll her daughter in school, she first had to register on the municipal register.
Usage note In Spain, «el padrón municipal» is the residents' register and «empadronarse» is to register there. In parts of Latin America it is the electoral roll.
constituency; electoral district
En esa circunscripción rural, cada escaño cuesta muchos menos votos que en la capital.
In that rural constituency, each seat costs far fewer votes than in the capital.
Usage note Electoral unit that elects a set number of representatives. In Mexico, «distrito electoral» is more usual.
vote count; scrutiny
Con el noventa por ciento del escrutinio completado, la candidata ya daba por segura su victoria.
With ninety percent of the vote counted, the candidate was already sure of victory.
Usage note Election nights use «el escrutinio» and «escrutado». It also means close public scrutiny: «bajo escrutinio».
case law; jurisprudence
La jurisprudencia del Supremo ha ampliado la protección de los inquilinos frente a los desahucios.
Supreme Court case law has broadened tenant protection against evictions.
Usage note In Spanish it usually means the body of court rulings (case law), not legal philosophy. «Sentar jurisprudencia» means to set binding precedent.
resource; appeal
El recurso presentado por la empresa suspendió temporalmente la multa impuesta por el regulador.
The appeal lodged by the company temporarily suspended the fine imposed by the regulator.
Usage note Everyday meaning: resource («recursos naturales»). In law, an appeal: «recurso de apelación», «interponer un recurso».
regulations; rules
La nueva normativa obliga a los restaurantes a indicar los alérgenos de cada plato.
The new regulations require restaurants to list the allergens in each dish.
Usage note Singular collective noun: «la normativa vigente» (current regulations). As an adjective, «normativo» means regulatory.
authority; power (legal)
El alcalde no tiene potestad para cerrar un negocio sin un informe técnico previo.
The mayor does not have the authority to close a business without a prior technical report.
Usage note Legal power granted to an institution. «Patria potestad» is parental authority over a child.
interference; meddling
El gobierno denunció la injerencia de potencias extranjeras en la campaña electoral.
The government denounced interference by foreign powers in the election campaign.
Usage note Always negative: undue intervention. Common collocations: «injerencia en los asuntos internos», «injerencia política».
levy; tax; charge
El nuevo gravamen sobre las viviendas vacías busca aumentar la oferta de alquiler.
The new levy on empty homes aims to increase the supply of rental housing.
Usage note Note the accent shift in the plural: «gravámenes». Verb: «gravar» (to tax), not «grabar» (to record).
grievance; offense
Los habitantes del interior acumulan décadas de agravios por la falta de inversión pública.
People in the interior have built up decades of grievances over the lack of public investment.
Usage note A perceived injustice. «Agravio comparativo» (unfair disparity) is a C2 expression used in political debate.
struggle; rivalry
La pugna entre las dos facciones del partido paralizó la elaboración del programa electoral.
The struggle between the party's two factions paralyzed the drafting of the manifesto.
Usage note Journalistic word for a sustained conflict: «pugna por el poder», «en pugna con». Verb: «pugnar por».
network; web; framework
La investigación destapó un entramado de empresas pantalla dedicado a blanquear dinero.
The investigation uncovered a network of shell companies devoted to laundering money.
Usage note A complex structure of connections, often opaque: «entramado societario», «entramado de corrupción», «entramado institucional».
unfounded; inadmissible; unfair (dismissal)
El juez declaró improcedente el despido porque la empresa no había justificado sus motivos.
The judge ruled the dismissal unfair because the company had not justified its reasons.
Usage note «Despido improcedente» is the standard term for unfair dismissal in Spain. Generally, not legally or procedurally appropriate.
reliable; conclusive (proof)
Para reclamar la indemnización, necesita una prueba fehaciente de que el envío llegó dañado.
To claim compensation, you need conclusive proof that the shipment arrived damaged.
Usage note Legal and administrative register: «prueba fehaciente», «de forma fehaciente» (in a verifiable way).
arbitrary
Los vecinos consideran arbitrario que la multa solo se aplique en algunos barrios.
Residents consider it arbitrary that the fine is applied only in some neighborhoods.
Usage note Based on whim rather than rules. «Detención arbitraria» (arbitrary arrest) is common in human-rights reporting.
Handle contracts, procedures, negotiations and economic cycles in professional Spanish.
to agree on jointly; to reach consensus on
Sindicatos y dirección consensuaron un protocolo para prevenir el acoso en el trabajo.
Unions and management jointly agreed on a protocol to prevent harassment at work.
Usage note Accent on the ú in some forms (consensúo). Transitive: «consensuar un texto, una medida»; the result is «consensuado».
to settle; to resolve (a dispute)
Un tribunal internacional dirimirá la disputa territorial entre ambos países.
An international court will settle the territorial dispute between the two countries.
Usage note Formal verb for ending a dispute by a decision: «dirimir diferencias, un conflicto, una controversia».
to reconcile; to balance
La negociadora logró conciliar intereses que al principio parecían del todo incompatibles.
The negotiator managed to reconcile interests that at first seemed completely incompatible.
Usage note Also «conciliar el sueño» (to get to sleep). Compare B2 «la conciliación laboral» (work-life balance).
to speed up; to streamline
La ventanilla única agilizó la tramitación de permisos para las pequeñas empresas.
The one-stop office streamlined permit processing for small businesses.
Usage note Usually about bureaucracy or procedures: «agilizar los trámites». More idiomatic than «acelerar» in that context.
to remedy; to rectify
Tiene diez días para subsanar los errores de la solicitud o quedará excluida.
You have ten days to correct the errors in your application or it will be excluded.
Usage note Typical of official letters: «subsanar defectos, deficiencias, errores». Means fixing an omission formally.
to process; to handle (paperwork)
La gestoría tramitó el permiso de residencia en menos de un mes.
The agency processed the residence permit in less than a month.
Usage note Both the applicant and the office can «tramitar». Noun: «el trámite» (B2). «En trámite» means pending.
to entrust; to assign
La dirección encomendó la auditoría interna a una consultora externa e independiente.
Management entrusted the internal audit to an external, independent consultancy.
Usage note Stem-changing (encomiendo). Pattern: «encomendar algo a alguien». «Encomendarse a» means to entrust oneself to.
to orchestrate
Según la fiscalía, el directivo orquestó una campaña para hundir el precio de las acciones.
According to the prosecutors, the executive orchestrated a campaign to drive down the share price.
Usage note Figuratively, to coordinate something complex, often with a hint of manipulation: «una campaña orquestada».
to put out to tender; to bid
El ayuntamiento licitará la gestión del servicio de autobuses el próximo trimestre.
The city council will put the management of the bus service out to tender next quarter.
Usage note Public procurement verb. «La licitación» is the tender process; companies «se presentan a una licitación».
to award (a contract, prize)
El ministerio adjudicó el contrato a la oferta que obtuvo la mejor puntuación técnica.
The ministry awarded the contract to the bid with the best technical score.
Usage note «Adjudicarse algo» means to win or claim it: «el equipo se adjudicó el torneo».
to extend (a deadline, contract)
El organismo prorrogó el plazo de inscripción hasta finales de septiembre.
The agency extended the registration deadline until the end of September.
Usage note Noun: «la prórroga», which in football also means extra time. Spelling change: prorrogué.
to terminate; to cancel (a contract)
La empresa rescindió el contrato con el proveedor por incumplimientos reiterados.
The company terminated the contract with the supplier over repeated breaches.
Usage note Legal term for ending a contract early. Everyday alternatives: «cancelar», «romper», «dar por terminado».
to compensate; to indemnify
La aseguradora deberá indemnizar a los vecinos por los daños que causó la inundación.
The insurer will have to compensate residents for the damage the flood caused.
Usage note Pattern: «indemnizar a alguien por algo». Noun: «la indemnización», also severance pay after a dismissal.
to collect (taxes); to raise (funds)
El concierto benéfico recaudó más de cien mil euros para los afectados por el terremoto.
The charity concert raised more than a hundred thousand euros for the earthquake victims.
Usage note Collocates with «impuestos», «fondos», «dinero». «La recaudación» is tax revenue or box-office takings.
to combine; to make compatible
El nuevo horario permite compatibilizar el trabajo presencial con el cuidado de los hijos.
The new schedule makes it possible to combine on-site work with looking after the children.
Usage note Pattern: «compatibilizar A con B». Common when discussing jobs, studies and family life.
to officially recognize; to certify
Antes de ejercer, la médica tuvo que homologar su título universitario extranjero.
Before practicing, the doctor had to get her foreign university degree officially recognized.
Usage note Used for degrees, products and equipment meeting a standard: «un casco homologado». Noun: «la homologación».
to resolve; to settle (a problem, debt)
El equipo técnico solventó la avería en pocas horas y el servicio se restableció.
The technical team resolved the fault within a few hours and service was restored.
Usage note Collocates with «problemas», «dificultades», «deudas». Related to «solvente» (solvent; reliable).
to perform; to hold (a role)
Durante diez años desempeñó el cargo de directora financiera en una multinacional.
For ten years she held the position of chief financial officer at a multinational.
Usage note Collocates with «un cargo», «un papel», «una función». Noun: «el desempeño» (performance).
to revitalize; to boost
La apertura del mercado artesanal dinamizó la economía del casco histórico.
Opening the craft market boosted the economy of the old town.
Usage note Makes a sector or area more active. Frequent in local development plans: «dinamizar el comercio, el turismo».
to restructure
La aerolínea reestructuró su deuda para evitar la quiebra y mantener la flota.
The airline restructured its debt to avoid bankruptcy and keep its fleet.
Usage note Double e in writing. «Reestructuración» often implies job cuts, like the English «restructuring».
to diversify
La cooperativa diversificó sus fuentes de ingreso para depender menos de la exportación.
The cooperative diversified its sources of income to depend less on exports.
Usage note Spelling change: diversifiqué. Collocates with «riesgos», «la economía», «la oferta», «las inversiones».
to do without; to dispense with
Para reducir costes, la empresa decidió prescindir de varios consultores externos.
To cut costs, the company decided to do without several external consultants.
Usage note Always with «de». Often a euphemism for dismissing staff. «Imprescindible» (essential) comes from the same root.
to accelerate; to speed up
La inversión en trenes de cercanías aceleró la reducción de las emisiones urbanas.
Investment in commuter trains accelerated the reduction of urban emissions.
Usage note Transitive or intransitive. «Acelerar los plazos» means bringing deadlines forward; «acelerarse» is to speed up.
compensation; something given in return
Los becarios trabajaban cuarenta horas semanales sin ninguna contraprestación económica.
The interns worked forty hours a week without any financial compensation.
Usage note Legal and business term for what one party gives in exchange: «como contraprestación», «sin contraprestación».
concerted agreement; social dialogue
La concertación entre sindicatos y patronal evitó una huelga general en pleno verano.
Negotiated agreement between unions and employers averted a general strike in the middle of summer.
Usage note Political and labor term for negotiated consensus between social partners. Verb: «concertar» (to agree; to arrange).
gap; mismatch; lag
Existe un desfase evidente entre lo que enseñan las universidades y lo que piden las empresas.
There is a clear mismatch between what universities teach and what companies want.
Usage note A mismatch in time or level: «desfase horario» (jet lag), «desfase presupuestario» (budget shortfall).
boom; peak; rise
El auge del turismo ha disparado el precio de la vivienda en el centro de la ciudad.
The tourism boom has sent housing prices soaring in the city center.
Usage note «Estar en auge» means to be booming or on the rise. Opposite: «el declive».
decline
El cierre de la mina aceleró el declive demográfico de toda la comarca.
The closure of the mine accelerated the demographic decline of the whole area.
Usage note Gradual loss of strength or importance: «en declive», «entrar en declive». Also a physical slope.
Describe causes, consequences and social responses to crises and long-term change.
to trigger; to unleash
La expulsión del embajador desencadenó la peor crisis diplomática entre ambos países en décadas.
The ambassador's expulsion triggered the worst diplomatic crisis between the two countries in decades.
Usage note Literally «to unchain». Used for events that set off a chain reaction: «desencadenar una ola de protestas».
to foster; to bring about
La disposición circular de las mesas propició un diálogo más abierto entre los participantes.
Arranging the tables in a circle fostered a more open dialogue among the participants.
Usage note Creates favorable conditions. Neutral or positive, unlike «provocar». Adjective: «propicio» (favorable).
to alleviate; to mitigate
Las ayudas apenas paliaron los efectos de la subida de precios en las familias más pobres.
The aid barely alleviated the effects of rising prices on the poorest families.
Usage note Reduces harm without solving its cause. Related to «paliativo» (palliative care: «cuidados paliativos»).
to counteract; to offset
El banco central subió los tipos de interés para contrarrestar la presión inflacionaria.
The central bank raised interest rates to counteract inflationary pressure.
Usage note Neutralizes an opposing force: «contrarrestar los efectos, la influencia, las críticas».
to reverse; to revert
La reforestación empezó a revertir el deterioro del ecosistema después de veinte años.
Reforestation began to reverse the deterioration of the ecosystem after twenty years.
Usage note Stem-changing (revierto, revirtió). «Revertir en» means to result in: «revertir en beneficio de todos».
to diminish; to erode
Los continuos retrasos mermaron la confianza de los inversores en el proyecto.
The constant delays eroded investors' confidence in the project.
Usage note Transitive or intransitive. Common with «la confianza», «las capacidades», «los recursos». Noun: «la merma».
to undermine
Las continuas filtraciones socavaron la confianza pública en la investigación oficial.
The constant leaks undermined public confidence in the official investigation.
Usage note Literally to dig under. Suggests gradual, hidden damage to trust, authority or institutions.
to strengthen; to secure
El nuevo acuerdo busca afianzar la cooperación científica entre las universidades de ambos países.
The new agreement seeks to strengthen scientific cooperation between the two countries' universities.
Usage note Makes something already existing more solid. «Afianzarse en» means to become established in a position.
to intensify; to worsen
Los combates se recrudecieron durante el invierno y miles de civiles huyeron hacia la frontera.
The fighting intensified during the winter and thousands of civilians fled toward the border.
Usage note Almost always reflexive and negative: conflicts, violence, cold or illnesses «se recrudecen». Noun: «el recrudecimiento».
to lessen; to tone down
Un sistema de becas atenuó el impacto de la subida de matrículas en los estudiantes.
A scholarship scheme lessened the impact of higher tuition fees on students.
Usage note Accent on ú in some forms (atenúo). In law, «circunstancia atenuante» is a mitigating circumstance.
to eradicate; to stamp out
La campaña combina educación y sanciones para erradicar el trabajo infantil en la región.
The campaign combines education and penalties to eradicate child labor in the region.
Usage note Removes something harmful at its root: «erradicar la pobreza, una enfermedad, la violencia».
to perpetuate
Una cobertura mediática poco crítica puede perpetuar estereotipos muy perjudiciales.
Uncritical media coverage can perpetuate very harmful stereotypes.
Usage note Usually about keeping negative patterns alive: desigualdades, prejuicios. Accent on ú: perpetúa.
to slow down
Las lluvias torrenciales ralentizaron las tareas de rescate durante toda la noche.
The torrential rain slowed down the rescue work throughout the night.
Usage note Very common in Spain; much of Latin America prefers «desacelerar» or «hacer más lento».
to culminate; to complete
El proceso de paz culminó con la firma de un acuerdo histórico en la capital.
The peace process culminated in the signing of a historic agreement in the capital.
Usage note Intransitive with «con/en»; transitive means to complete: «culminar una carrera, un proyecto».
to entail; to involve
Mudarse a otro país conlleva trámites, gastos y un periodo de adaptación considerable.
Moving to another country entails paperwork, expenses and a considerable adjustment period.
Usage note Usually with a thing as subject, so third-person forms dominate. Close to «implicar» and «suponer».
to entail; to involve (a risk)
La operación entraña ciertos riesgos, pero los médicos la consideran la mejor opción.
The operation involves certain risks, but the doctors consider it the best option.
Usage note Especially with «riesgo», «peligro», «dificultad». Related to «las entrañas» (the insides; the core).
to arouse; to give rise to
La decisión del tribunal suscitó una intensa polémica entre juristas y asociaciones.
The court's decision sparked intense controversy among jurists and associations.
Usage note Collocates with «polémica», «interés», «dudas», «críticas». More formal than «provocar» or «despertar».
to restore; to re-establish
Los técnicos restablecieron el suministro eléctrico tras reparar la avería en la subestación.
The technicians restored the power supply after repairing the fault at the substation.
Usage note Irregular like «establecer» (restablezco). «Restablecerse» also means to recover from an illness.
to safeguard; to protect
El sistema cifra los historiales para salvaguardar la privacidad de los pacientes.
The system encrypts the records to safeguard patients' privacy.
Usage note Formal verb for protecting rights, interests or heritage. Noun: «la salvaguarda» or «la salvaguardia».
to redirect; to get back on track
La mediadora reencauzó la conversación hacia los puntos en los que sí había acuerdo.
The mediator steered the conversation back toward the points on which there was agreement.
Usage note From «cauce» (riverbed): putting a process back in its channel. Also «encauzar» (to channel).
social fabric
La despoblación ha debilitado el tejido social de muchos pueblos del interior.
Depopulation has weakened the social fabric of many inland villages.
Usage note The network of relationships holding a community together. Also «tejido empresarial/productivo» for businesses.
vulnerability
Los servicios sociales priorizan a las familias en situación de vulnerabilidad económica.
Social services prioritize families in a situation of economic vulnerability.
Usage note The phrase «en situación de vulnerabilidad» is standard administrative language, preferred to «pobre» or «débil».
polarization
La polarización política ha reducido el espacio para los acuerdos entre partidos.
Political polarization has reduced the room for agreements between parties.
Usage note Very frequent in current political analysis. Verb: «polarizar»; adjective: «polarizado».
social protection; welfare coverage
La reforma amplía la cobertura social a los trabajadores de plataformas digitales.
The reform extends social protection to digital platform workers.
Usage note Protection against unemployment, illness or old age. «Cobertura» alone also means media coverage or phone signal.
group (with a shared identity, cause)
El colectivo de enfermeras denunció la falta de personal en los hospitales públicos.
The nurses' group denounced the staff shortage in public hospitals.
Usage note A social group defined by a shared identity or profession: «colectivos vulnerables». In Argentina «el colectivo» is also a bus.
pressing; urgent
La falta de vivienda asequible se ha convertido en el problema más acuciante de la ciudad.
The lack of affordable housing has become the city's most pressing problem.
Usage note Stronger than «urgente»: a need that presses hard. From «acuciar» (to urge; to harass).
incipient; emerging
Una incipiente red vecinal empezó a coordinar el reparto de alimentos en el barrio.
An emerging neighborhood network began coordinating food distribution in the area.
Usage note Something just beginning: «una recuperación incipiente», «una calvicie incipiente».
Analyze how news is framed, verified and communicated by outlets and institutions.
framing
El encuadre de la noticia presentaba la protesta como un problema de orden público.
The framing of the story presented the protest as a public-order problem.
Usage note In media studies, the angle that shapes interpretation. In photography and film, the frame or shot composition.
denial; rebuttal
El desmentido oficial llegó demasiado tarde, cuando el rumor ya se había extendido.
The official denial came too late, when the rumor had already spread.
Usage note A public statement denying published information. Verb: «desmentir» (irregular: desmiento, desmintió).
editorial (article)
El editorial del domingo criticó con dureza la gestión del gobierno durante la crisis.
Sunday's editorial harshly criticized the government's handling of the crisis.
Usage note Masculine for the article; «la editorial» (feminine) is a publishing house. Expresses the outlet's official view.
column (opinion piece)
Escribe una columna semanal en la que mezcla crónica política y recuerdos personales.
She writes a weekly column mixing political commentary and personal memories.
Usage note A signed regular opinion piece; its author is «el/la columnista». Also «columna vertebral» (spine).
caption
El pie de foto confundía a la alcaldesa con una de sus asesoras.
The caption mistook the mayor for one of her advisers.
Usage note The text under a photograph. Plural «pies de foto». Also «el pie» of a page is the footer.
headline; holder
El titular simplificaba tanto el estudio que muchos lectores entendieron lo contrario.
The headline oversimplified the study so much that many readers understood the opposite.
Usage note «Acaparar titulares» means to grab the headlines. As an adjective or noun, also the holder of a post or account.
editorial line
Tras el cambio de propietarios, la línea editorial del diario giró hacia posiciones más conservadoras.
After the change of owners, the paper's editorial line shifted toward more conservative positions.
Usage note The ideological and professional orientation of a media outlet, shaping what it covers and how.
right of reply
El empresario ejerció su derecho de réplica y el periódico publicó su versión íntegra.
The businessman exercised his right of reply and the newspaper published his full statement.
Usage note Legal right to respond in the same medium. Close to «derecho de rectificación», the formal term in Spain.
disinformation campaign
Los analistas detectaron una intoxicación informativa coordinada desde cuentas automatizadas.
Analysts detected a disinformation campaign coordinated from automated accounts.
Usage note Deliberate flooding of the public sphere with misleading claims. «Intoxicar» here means to poison with false information.
distortion; misrepresentation
La portavoz calificó de tergiversación el resumen que la televisión hizo de su entrevista.
The spokesperson called the TV channel's summary of her interview a distortion.
Usage note Verb: «tergiversar» (to twist someone's words). Implies deliberate or careless distortion of meaning.
virality
La viralidad de un vídeo no dice nada sobre la veracidad de lo que muestra.
A video's virality says nothing about the truthfulness of what it shows.
Usage note Related to B2 «viralizarse». Often contrasted with «veracidad» or «rigor» in media criticism.
recommendation system
El sistema de recomendación de la plataforma refuerza los gustos que el usuario ya tenía.
The platform's recommendation system reinforces the tastes the user already had.
Usage note Software that suggests content. Also «algoritmo de recomendación»; key concept in debates on platforms.
filter bubble
Vivir en una burbuja informativa dificulta entender por qué otros votan de forma distinta.
Living in a filter bubble makes it hard to understand why others vote differently.
Usage note Also «burbuja de filtros». Related: «cámara de eco» (echo chamber).
media literacy
El instituto incluye talleres de alfabetización mediática para aprender a verificar noticias.
The school includes media literacy workshops to learn how to verify news stories.
Usage note «Alfabetización» literally means literacy (learning to read). Also «alfabetización digital».
spokesperson
La portavoz del gobierno evitó dar detalles sobre la negociación con los transportistas.
The government spokesperson avoided giving details of the negotiation with the hauliers.
Usage note Common gender: «el portavoz», «la portavoz». In parliaments, «portavoz parlamentario» is a party's floor leader.
appearance (before the press, a committee)
En su comparecencia ante la comisión, el ministro reconoció errores en la gestión.
In his appearance before the committee, the minister acknowledged mistakes in the handling.
Usage note Formal appearance before an institution or the media. Verb: «comparecer» (comparezco).
press release
La nota de prensa evitaba precisar cuándo dejaría el cargo el consejero delegado.
The press release avoided specifying when the chief executive would step down.
Usage note Also «comunicado de prensa». In Latin America «boletín de prensa» is also used.
target audience
El público destinatario de la campaña, los adolescentes, la consideró paternalista.
The campaign's target audience, teenagers, found it patronizing.
Usage note Also «público objetivo». «Destinatario» alone means addressee or recipient.
journalistic rigor
El rigor informativo exige contrastar cada dato con al menos dos fuentes independientes.
Journalistic rigor requires checking each fact against at least two independent sources.
Usage note Accuracy based on verification. «Contrastar» (to cross-check) is the verb journalists pair with it.
attribution; power (of an office)
Una atribución clara permite al lector saber quién sostiene cada afirmación del reportaje.
Clear attribution lets the reader know who stands behind each claim in the report.
Usage note In journalism, identifying the source of a claim. In the plural, «atribuciones» are an official's powers.
biased; slanted
El informe ofrece un retrato sesgado de la población rural, basado en tópicos.
The report gives a biased portrait of the rural population, based on clichés.
Usage note From «sesgo». Stronger synonym in politics: «tendencioso». Also means cut on the bias in sewing.
ambiguous; misleading
El titular equívoco dio lugar a dos lecturas opuestas del mismo comunicado.
The ambiguous headline gave rise to two opposite readings of the same statement.
Usage note As a noun, «un equívoco» is a misunderstanding. Distinguish from «equivocado» (mistaken).
evident; well-known
El deterioro del edificio era tan notorio que los inspectores ordenaron desalojarlo.
The building's deterioration was so evident that the inspectors ordered its evacuation.
Usage note False friend: usually means obvious or well-known, not necessarily «notorious» (infamous).
Discuss heritage, belonging and artistic interpretation in essays, reviews and cultural debate.
collective imagination
La figura del emigrante que vuelve rico ocupa un lugar central en el imaginario colectivo.
The figure of the emigrant who returns rich holds a central place in the collective imagination.
Usage note The shared images and myths of a society. «El imaginario» alone is common: «el imaginario popular».
idiosyncrasy; distinctive character
Para entender la política local hay que conocer la idiosincrasia de sus habitantes.
To understand local politics you have to know the distinctive character of its people.
Usage note In Spanish it usually means a group's typical way of being, rather than an odd individual quirk.
imprint; stamp
La arquitectura del puerto conserva la impronta de los comerciantes genoveses del siglo XVI.
The port's architecture still bears the imprint of sixteenth-century Genoese merchants.
Usage note A lasting mark: «dejar su impronta en algo». Formal; «huella» is the everyday synonym.
historical memory
Las asociaciones de memoria histórica exigen abrir las fosas comunes de la guerra.
Historical memory associations are demanding that the mass graves from the war be opened.
Usage note In Spain and Latin America it refers to recovering the memory of victims of wars and dictatorships; politically charged.
intangible heritage
La UNESCO declaró el flamenco patrimonio inmaterial de la humanidad en 2010.
UNESCO declared flamenco part of the intangible heritage of humanity in 2010.
Usage note Living traditions, crafts and knowledge. «Patrimonio» alone means heritage or personal assets.
cultural appropriation
La colección fue acusada de apropiación cultural por copiar bordados de una comunidad indígena.
The collection was accused of cultural appropriation for copying an Indigenous community's embroidery.
Usage note Contested concept used in fashion, music and art debates. Verb: «apropiarse de algo».
worldview
En la cosmovisión andina, la tierra no es un recurso sino un ser vivo.
In the Andean worldview, the earth is not a resource but a living being.
Usage note Frequent in anthropology and when discussing Indigenous cultures. Synonym: «visión del mundo».
mixing (cultural, ethnic)
El mestizaje entre tradiciones africanas, indígenas y europeas dio origen a esa música.
The mixing of African, Indigenous and European traditions gave rise to that music.
Usage note Historically ethnic mixing in Latin America; now often cultural. Connotations vary strongly by country and context.
rootedness; roots; attachment
Su arraigo en el pueblo pesó más que la oferta de trabajo en la capital.
His roots in the village weighed more than the job offer in the capital.
Usage note Attachment to a place or community; in Spanish immigration law, «arraigo» is a route to residency.
uprooting; rootlessness
La novela retrata el desarraigo de quienes emigraron siendo niños y nunca regresaron.
The novel portrays the rootlessness of those who emigrated as children and never returned.
Usage note Opposite of «arraigo»: the pain of losing one's place. Common theme in exile and migration literature.
otherness
El ensayo reflexiona sobre la alteridad a partir de los relatos de los primeros viajeros.
The essay reflects on otherness through the accounts of the first travelers.
Usage note Philosophical and anthropological term. C2 «la otredad» is a near-synonym with a more literary flavor.
canon
Durante siglos, el canon literario excluyó a muchas escritoras de talento.
For centuries, the literary canon excluded many talented women writers.
Usage note Plural with accent: «cánones». Also a fee or levy in business: «canon digital».
rereading; reinterpretation
Su montaje propone una relectura feminista de un clásico del Siglo de Oro.
Her production offers a feminist reinterpretation of a Golden Age classic.
Usage note Literally reading again; in criticism, a new interpretation of a work, event or tradition.
symbolism
El simbolismo del río, que separa y une a los personajes, recorre toda la película.
The symbolism of the river, which separates and unites the characters, runs through the whole film.
Usage note Also the name of a late 19th-century artistic movement (el Simbolismo). Adjective: «simbólico».
staging; production
La puesta en escena, casi sin decorado, obliga al público a imaginar cada lugar.
The staging, with almost no set, forces the audience to imagine every place.
Usage note Theater and film term. Figuratively, a carefully staged public act: «una puesta en escena del gobierno».
background; undertone
Detrás de la disputa por la herencia hay un trasfondo de celos que nunca se resolvió.
Behind the dispute over the inheritance lies a background of jealousy that was never resolved.
Usage note The deeper context behind what is visible: «trasfondo político, social». Also spelled «transfondo» (less standard).
plausibility; verisimilitude
Los diálogos, llenos de silencios, dan a la serie una verosimilitud poco habitual.
The dialogues, full of silences, give the series an unusual sense of realism.
Usage note Whether a story seems believable, which is different from being true («veracidad»). Adjective: «verosímil».
narrative voice; narrator
La voz narrativa oculta información al lector hasta el último capítulo.
The narrative voice withholds information from the reader until the last chapter.
Usage note The narrator as a textual construct, distinct from the author. Common in literature classes and reviews.
register (of language); record
Pasa con naturalidad del registro coloquial al académico según quién la escuche.
She moves naturally from colloquial to academic register depending on who is listening.
Usage note In linguistics, the level of formality. Also a record or registry office, and a police search («un registro»).
reference point; role model; referent
La escritora se ha convertido en un referente para toda una generación de autoras.
The writer has become a role model for a whole generation of women authors.
Usage note Very common today for a role model or benchmark: «un referente en su campo». In linguistics, what a word refers to.
hybridization; blending
La hibridación de géneros, entre el documental y la ficción, define su cine.
The blending of genres, between documentary and fiction, defines her cinema.
Usage note Mixing of forms or traditions into something new. Also used in biology and for hybrid vehicles.
heritage; body (of knowledge, works)
La biblioteca digitalizó todo su acervo de manuscritos para facilitar la investigación.
The library digitized its entire collection of manuscripts to make research easier.
Usage note An accumulated common stock: «acervo cultural», «acervo documental». Formal; often «patrimonio» in everyday speech.
diaspora
La diáspora venezolana ha transformado la vida cultural de muchas ciudades latinoamericanas.
The Venezuelan diaspora has transformed the cultural life of many Latin American cities.
Usage note Communities scattered from their homeland that keep shared ties. Stress on the first a: diáspora.
transculturation
Fernando Ortiz acuñó el término transculturación para describir la cultura cubana.
Fernando Ortiz coined the term transculturation to describe Cuban culture.
Usage note Concept from Latin American studies: cultural change in both directions through prolonged contact.
plausible; believable
La actriz construye un personaje complejo y verosímil a partir de muy pocos gestos.
The actress builds a complex, believable character out of very few gestures.
Usage note Used for stories, explanations and characters. Opposite: «inverosímil» (far-fetched).
deep-rooted; ingrained
Ese prejuicio está tan arraigado que muchas personas ni siquiera lo perciben.
That prejudice is so ingrained that many people do not even notice it.
Usage note For habits, beliefs and traditions: «una costumbre muy arraigada». From «raíz» (root).
underlying
La tensión subyacente entre los hermanos aflora en los silencios de cada comida familiar.
The underlying tension between the siblings surfaces in the silences of every family meal.
Usage note Formal: «el problema subyacente», «la causa subyacente». From «subyacer» (to underlie).
Evaluate arguments, attitudes and outcomes with nuance instead of simply good or bad.
plausible
Su explicación es plausible, aunque todavía faltan documentos que la confirmen.
Her explanation is plausible, although documents confirming it are still missing.
Usage note Credible but unproven. In some contexts also means praiseworthy: «un esfuerzo plausible».
weak; flimsy
La conclusión descansa sobre un argumento demasiado endeble para convencer al tribunal.
The conclusion rests on an argument far too flimsy to convince the court.
Usage note For arguments, evidence or structures lacking solidity. Stronger and more formal than «débil».
well-founded; justified
Los vecinos tenían fundadas sospechas de que el agua estaba contaminada.
The residents had well-founded suspicions that the water was contaminated.
Usage note Often before the noun: «fundadas sospechas», «fundado temor». Opposite: «infundado».
compelling; forceful; blunt
La fiscal presentó pruebas contundentes que dejaron sin argumentos a la defensa.
The prosecutor presented compelling evidence that left the defense without arguments.
Usage note Evidence or replies that leave no doubt. «Objeto contundente» is a blunt instrument.
categorical; emphatic
La directora fue tajante: no habrá excepciones para nadie, tampoco para los socios.
The director was categorical: there will be no exceptions for anyone, not even the partners.
Usage note From «tajar» (to cut): a sharp, final statement that allows no discussion. Can sound harsh.
even-handed; impartial
Necesitamos a alguien ecuánime que escuche a las dos partes sin tomar partido.
We need someone even-handed who will listen to both sides without taking sides.
Usage note Describes calm, balanced judgment. Noun: «la ecuanimidad». Close to «imparcial», but also about temperament.
relevant; appropriate
El profesor consideró pertinente aclarar el concepto antes de seguir con el temario.
The teacher considered it appropriate to clarify the concept before continuing with the syllabus.
Usage note «Lo considero pertinente» is a formal way to say relevant or fitting. Opposite: «impertinente» (also rude).
balanced; measured
El comité emitió un juicio ponderado después de escuchar a todos los implicados.
The committee issued a balanced judgment after hearing everyone involved.
Usage note From «ponderar» (to weigh; to praise). In statistics, «media ponderada» is a weighted average.
ambivalent
Mantiene una relación ambivalente con la ciudad donde nació: la quiere y la rehúye.
She has an ambivalent relationship with the city where she was born: she loves it and avoids it.
Usage note Combines opposite feelings at once. Not the same as indifferent («indiferente»).
uneven; disparate; mixed
La medida tuvo una acogida dispar: entusiasmo en las ciudades y rechazo en el campo.
The measure had a mixed reception: enthusiasm in the cities and rejection in the countryside.
Usage note Markedly different: «resultados dispares», «opiniones dispares». Also used for a mixed reception.
brief; terse; concise
La empresa respondió con un escueto comunicado de dos líneas que no aclaraba nada.
The company responded with a terse two-line statement that clarified nothing.
Usage note Very short and without extras; can suggest reluctance to say more. Often placed before the noun.
unavoidable; inescapable
La reforma de las pensiones se ha convertido en una tarea ineludible para el próximo gobierno.
Pension reform has become an unavoidable task for the next government.
Usage note From «eludir»: cannot be dodged. Common with «compromiso», «cita», «responsabilidad».
counterproductive
Castigar a los alumnos sin recreo resultó contraproducente para la convivencia escolar.
Punishing pupils by taking away break time turned out to be counterproductive for school life.
Usage note Achieves the opposite of what was intended. Usually with «resultar» or «ser».
reluctant; unwilling
Muchos pequeños comercios siguen siendo reacios a aceptar pagos con el móvil.
Many small shops are still reluctant to accept mobile payments.
Usage note Pattern: «reacio a + infinitive/noun». More formal than «no querer»; implies resistance.
palpable; evident
La tensión en la sala era palpable cuando el jurado entró para leer el veredicto.
The tension in the room was palpable when the jury came in to read the verdict.
Usage note So clear it can almost be touched: «tensión palpable», «resultados palpables».
emphatic; resounding; categorical
El referéndum terminó con un rotundo no a la construcción del nuevo aeropuerto.
The referendum ended with a resounding no to the construction of the new airport.
Usage note «Un éxito rotundo», «una negativa rotunda». Adverb: «rotundamente», very common in denials.
brief; cursory; superficial
Tras un examen somero, el técnico concluyó que el problema estaba en el cableado.
After a cursory examination, the technician concluded that the problem was in the wiring.
Usage note A quick, not in-depth treatment: «una descripción somera». Adverb: «someramente».
to glimpse; to begin to see
Después de meses de negociación, por fin se vislumbra una salida al conflicto.
After months of negotiation, a way out of the conflict is finally coming into view.
Usage note Literally to see faintly; figuratively, to begin to perceive a solution or future. Often «se vislumbra».
reluctantly; grudgingly
El presidente del club aceptó a regañadientes la dimisión de su entrenador favorito.
The club president reluctantly accepted the resignation of his favorite coach.
Usage note Doing something while showing displeasure. Neutral-colloquial register; «de mala gana» is a close synonym.
Link ideas, concede, contrast and conclude with the connectors of formal writing and speech.
that said; having said that
El plan es viable; dicho lo cual, todavía faltan garantías para los trabajadores afectados.
The plan is viable; that said, there are still no guarantees for the affected workers.
Usage note Formal marker that closes a point before a reservation. Slightly more literary than «dicho esto».
so; therefore; thus
Nadie presentó alegaciones en el plazo previsto; así pues, el proyecto queda aprobado.
No one submitted objections within the set period; therefore, the project is approved.
Usage note Draws a conclusion from what precedes it. More formal than «así que», and usually set off by commas.
however much; no matter how much
Por mucho que insistan, no pienso firmar un contrato que no entiendo.
However much they insist, I am not going to sign a contract I don't understand.
Usage note Concessive; takes the subjunctive for hypothetical cases. Variants: «por más que», «por muy + adj. + que».
therefore; hence
El coste de la energía se duplicó y, por ende, también el precio de los alimentos.
The cost of energy doubled and, therefore, so did the price of food.
Usage note Formal and written; sounds bookish in conversation, where «por eso» or «así que» are usual.
insofar as; to the extent that
La propuesta será útil en la medida en que reduzca la desigualdad entre regiones.
The proposal will be useful insofar as it reduces inequality between regions.
Usage note Links a claim to a degree or condition; subjunctive when hypothetical. «En la medida de lo posible» means as far as possible.
even so; still
Las pruebas eran escasas; aun así, la jueza decidió seguir adelante con la investigación.
The evidence was scarce; even so, the judge decided to go ahead with the investigation.
Usage note Written without accent («aun» = even). Introduces an outcome that holds despite the obstacle just mentioned.
nevertheless; all the same
El acuerdo tiene carencias evidentes; con todo, supone un avance respecto a la situación anterior.
The agreement has obvious shortcomings; nevertheless, it is an improvement on the previous situation.
Usage note Formal concessive marker. Also «con todo y con eso» in colloquial Latin American speech.
on the other hand; by contrast
El norte ganó población durante la década; por contra, el sur siguió vaciándose.
The north gained population during the decade; by contrast, the south kept emptying.
Usage note Common in Spain; some style guides prefer «por el contrario» or «en cambio».
what is more; in addition
El plan es costoso y, por añadidura, muy difícil de ejecutar en tan poco tiempo.
The plan is costly and, what is more, very hard to carry out in so little time.
Usage note Adds an extra point, often a negative one. Formal; «además» is the neutral option.
that being said
La reforma era necesaria; dicho esto, pudo haberse negociado mucho mejor con los sindicatos.
The reform was necessary; that being said, it could have been negotiated much better with the unions.
Usage note Very frequent in spoken argument to pivot to a reservation. Close to «dicho lo cual» and «ahora bien».
namely; that is to say
El contrato exige tres garantías, a saber: solvencia, experiencia y transparencia.
The contract requires three guarantees, namely solvency, experience and transparency.
Usage note Introduces a precise list or specification. Formal; in speech, «es decir» or «o sea» are more usual.
in short; ultimately
En definitiva, la responsabilidad última de la decisión recae en el consejo de administración.
Ultimately, final responsibility for the decision lies with the board of directors.
Usage note Signals a conclusion after considering details. False friend: does not mean «definitely» («sin duda»).
broadly speaking; in broad terms
A grandes rasgos, el informe confirma la tendencia que ya habían detectado otros estudios.
Broadly speaking, the report confirms the trend other studies had already detected.
Usage note Announces a general overview without details. «Rasgos» means features or traits.
strictly speaking
En rigor, aquello no fue una dimisión, sino un cese pactado con la empresa.
Strictly speaking, that was not a resignation but a departure agreed with the company.
Usage note Corrects or tightens a statement to be technically precise. Formal; also «en sentido estricto».
otherwise; apart from that
El primer capítulo resulta confuso; por lo demás, la novela está muy bien construida.
The first chapter is confusing; otherwise, the novel is very well constructed.
Usage note Sets aside one exception and comments on everything else. Also «por lo demás, todo bien» in speech.
as regards; with regard to
En lo que respecta a la financiación, todavía no hay un acuerdo entre los socios.
As regards funding, there is still no agreement between the partners.
Usage note Introduces a topic. Variants: «en lo que se refiere a», «en cuanto a», «por lo que respecta a».
in view of; given
Habida cuenta de los riesgos, los médicos aplazaron la intervención hasta la primavera.
In view of the risks, the doctors postponed the operation until spring.
Usage note Formal causal phrase; also «habida cuenta de que» + clause. Everyday equivalent: «teniendo en cuenta».
nevertheless; however
Prometió dimitir si perdía las elecciones; no obstante, sigue ocupando el cargo.
He promised to resign if he lost the election; nevertheless, he is still in office.
Usage note Formal equivalent of «sin embargo». As a preposition, «no obstante lo anterior» means notwithstanding the above.
consequently; accordingly
La prueba se obtuvo sin autorización judicial; en consecuencia, el juez la declaró nula.
The evidence was obtained without a court order; consequently, the judge declared it void.
Usage note Marks a direct result. «Actuar en consecuencia» means to act accordingly.
in sum; in short
En suma, los beneficios del proyecto no compensan los costes sociales que generaría.
In short, the project's benefits do not outweigh the social costs it would create.
Usage note Introduces a compact summary. Formal written style; in speech «en resumen» is more common.
in fact; actually
No fue ninguna sorpresa; de hecho, todos los analistas lo habían previsto meses antes.
It was no surprise; in fact, every analyst had predicted it months earlier.
Usage note Reinforces or corrects a previous claim with evidence. As an adjective phrase, «pareja de hecho» is a civil partnership.
after all; in the end
Al fin y al cabo, la decisión corresponde a los votantes y no a los expertos.
After all, the decision is up to the voters and not the experts.
Usage note Appeals to a basic truth that justifies the conclusion. Neutral register, common in speech and writing.
even at the risk that
Aun a riesgo de que me critiquen, publicaré todos los datos de la investigación.
Even at the risk of being criticized, I will publish all the data from the research.
Usage note Takes the subjunctive. With the same subject use «aun a riesgo de» + infinitive: «aun a riesgo de equivocarme».
on condition that; provided that
Aceptarán la propuesta a condición de que se mantengan todos los puestos de trabajo.
They will accept the proposal on condition that all jobs are kept.
Usage note Always followed by the subjunctive. Compare B2 «con la condición de que» and «siempre que».
as (in the role of); insofar as
La universidad intervino en tanto que propietaria del edificio y no como autoridad académica.
The university intervened as owner of the building and not as an academic authority.
Usage note Most often means «in one's capacity as». It can also mean «insofar as» or, in older texts, «while».
Use the fixed expressions of journalism, meetings and public debate that make Spanish sound natural at C1.
to start from the assumption that
Partimos de la base de que todos los participantes actuaron de buena fe.
We start from the assumption that all the participants acted in good faith.
Usage note Sets out a shared premise before an argument. Followed by an indicative clause.
to call into question
Las contradicciones del testigo pusieron en tela de juicio toda su declaración.
The witness's contradictions called his entire statement into question.
Usage note Formal and very frequent in the press. The passive-like «estar en tela de juicio» means to be in doubt.
to respond to; to head off
La ministra salió al paso de los rumores sobre su dimisión con una rueda de prensa.
The minister responded to rumors of her resignation with a press conference.
Usage note Quickly countering criticism or rumors before they spread. Typical of political journalism.
to emphasize; to stress
El informe hace hincapié en la necesidad de invertir en prevención temprana.
The report stresses the need to invest in early prevention.
Usage note Always with «en». A highly productive formal alternative to «subrayar» or «destacar».
to carry out
El laboratorio llevó a cabo tres ensayos independientes antes de publicar los resultados.
The laboratory carried out three independent trials before publishing the results.
Usage note Neutral-formal and extremely common with «un estudio», «una reforma», «una operación». Also «se llevó a cabo».
to ruin; to demolish (plans, arguments)
Un solo documento filtrado echó por tierra meses de negociación discreta.
A single leaked document wrecked months of discreet negotiation.
Usage note Destroys plans, hopes or arguments. Synonyms: «tirar por tierra», «dar al traste con».
to reveal; to make clear
La auditoría puso de manifiesto graves fallos en el control del gasto.
The audit revealed serious failings in spending control.
Usage note Formal equivalent of «mostrar» or «revelar». Also «quedar de manifiesto» (to become evident).
to be at stake
En esta votación está en juego la autonomía de las universidades públicas.
The autonomy of public universities is at stake in this vote.
Usage note Mostly third person with the thing at risk as subject. «Poner en juego» means to put at risk.
to go hand in hand
La transición energética debe ir de la mano de la justicia social.
The energy transition must go hand in hand with social justice.
Usage note Usually «ir de la mano de algo/alguien». Also literal for people holding hands.
to set a precedent
La sentencia podría sentar un precedente para miles de casos similares.
The ruling could set a precedent for thousands of similar cases.
Usage note «Sentar» here means to establish. Also «sentar las bases» (to lay the foundations).
to give rise to; to open the door to
La redacción imprecisa de la norma dio pie a interpretaciones contradictorias.
The imprecise wording of the rule gave rise to contradictory interpretations.
Usage note Creates the opportunity for something, often undesired: «dar pie a malentendidos, a rumores».
to live up to; to rise to
Los servicios de emergencia no estuvieron a la altura de una catástrofe de esa magnitud.
The emergency services did not rise to a disaster of that scale.
Usage note Can be used alone: «no estuvo a la altura» (he didn't measure up). Common in sports and political criticism.
to take action; to step in
El regulador tomó cartas en el asunto tras recibir cientos de reclamaciones.
The regulator stepped in after receiving hundreds of complaints.
Usage note An authority intervening after a problem persists. Neutral register, frequent in news.
to be called into question
La independencia del organismo quedó en entredicho tras los nombramientos.
The body's independence was called into question after the appointments.
Usage note Credibility or reputation damaged by doubts. Also «poner en entredicho».
to put obstacles in the way
La burocracia puso trabas a la llegada de la ayuda humanitaria durante semanas.
Bureaucracy put obstacles in the way of humanitarian aid for weeks.
Usage note Pattern: «poner trabas a algo/alguien». «Una traba» is literally a fetter or clasp.
to ignore; to disregard
La empresa hizo caso omiso de las advertencias de seguridad de sus propios técnicos.
The company ignored the safety warnings from its own technicians.
Usage note Deliberately ignoring advice or orders. Formal; the everyday version is «no hacer caso a».
to call the shots; to take the lead
En las reuniones del proyecto, la ingeniera jefe siempre lleva la voz cantante.
In project meetings, the chief engineer always calls the shots.
Usage note Being the one who leads or dominates in a group. From the lead singer's voice in a choir.
to come under suspicion
Todas las adjudicaciones de ese año quedaron bajo sospecha tras la investigación.
All the contracts awarded that year came under suspicion after the investigation.
Usage note Also «estar bajo sospecha» and «poner bajo sospecha». Typical of corruption reporting.
to hit a raw nerve; to touch a sore spot
La periodista puso el dedo en la llaga al preguntar por la financiación del partido.
The journalist touched a raw nerve by asking about the party's funding.
Usage note Pointing at the most sensitive or essential part of a problem. «La llaga» is an open sore.
to back down; to backtrack
El gobierno dio marcha atrás en la subida del transporte ante la presión ciudadana.
The government backtracked on the transport fare increase in the face of public pressure.
Usage note Literally to reverse a vehicle. Figuratively, withdrawing a decision: «dar marcha atrás en algo».
to put on record; to record
La secretaria dejó constancia de la objeción en el acta de la reunión.
The secretary put the objection on record in the minutes of the meeting.
Usage note Formal and administrative: record something so it can be proven later. «Que conste» is the spoken equivalent.
to take sides with
El mediador evitó tomar partido por cualquiera de las dos delegaciones.
The mediator avoided taking sides with either delegation.
Usage note Used with or without «por»: «no quiero tomar partido» (I don't want to take sides).
to overlook; to let pass
El informe pasó por alto un evidente conflicto de intereses del director.
The report overlooked the director's obvious conflict of interest.
Usage note Can be accidental or deliberate: «esta vez lo pasaré por alto» (I'll let it go this time).
to put on the table; to raise
El sindicato puso sobre la mesa una propuesta alternativa de reducción de jornada.
The union put an alternative proposal for shorter working hours on the table.
Usage note Introducing a proposal or issue for discussion. Very common in negotiations and debates.
to bring up; to drag up
En plena discusión, su hermano sacó a relucir una deuda de hace veinte años.
In the middle of the argument, her brother brought up a debt from twenty years ago.
Usage note Mentioning something, often uncomfortable or forgotten, at an inopportune moment. Also «salir a relucir».
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