Upper intermediate Spanish
Develop more precise Spanish with 250 upper-intermediate words for society, culture, arguments, work, and abstract topics.
At B2, precision matters more than simply finding a correct word. This list helps you distinguish ideas, develop arguments, and discuss less concrete topics. Compare the Spanish example with its English meaning and pay attention to register.
Build nuanced arguments, challenge claims, and reach conclusions.
approach; line of argument
El planteamiento del informe parte de que la vivienda es un derecho, no una mercancía.
The report's approach starts from the idea that housing is a right, not a commodity.
Usage note In argumentation, «planteamiento» is the way an issue or argument is framed; «el planteamiento de que...» introduces its central proposition.
thesis; central claim
La autora defiende la tesis de que reducir la jornada mejora la productividad.
The author defends the thesis that shortening the working week improves productivity.
Usage note The plural is unchanged: «una tesis / varias tesis». In academic debate, common collocations are «defender», «sostener» and «rechazar una tesis».
basis; grounds
El tribunal rechazó la acusación porque carecía de fundamento jurídico.
The court dismissed the accusation because it lacked a legal basis.
Usage note «Fundamento» names the supporting basis of a claim; «con fundamento» means with grounds, while «sin fundamento» means baselessly.
inference
Esa inferencia no se sostiene: que dos hechos coincidan no prueba que uno cause el otro.
That inference doesn't hold up: two events coinciding doesn't prove that one causes the other.
Usage note Use «hacer una inferencia» for a conclusion derived from evidence. It is narrower than «opinión», which need not follow from any stated facts.
starting point
Nuestro punto de partida es que ninguna política pública puede evaluarse sin conocer sus objetivos.
Our starting point is that no public policy can be assessed without knowing its objectives.
Usage note In a debate, «punto de partida» states an initial assumption or shared basis, not a physical departure point. It often precedes «es que...».
reservation; objection
La oposición puso reparos al presupuesto porque no especificaba cómo se financiarían las ayudas.
The opposition raised objections to the budget because it did not specify how the aid would be funded.
Usage note «Poner reparos a» expresses reservations about a proposal and requires «a». In the plural, «sin reparos» means openly or without hesitation.
refutation
La refutación del artículo se apoya en experimentos que nadie había repetido hasta entonces.
The refutation of the article rests on experiments that no one had replicated until then.
Usage note A «refutación» does more than disagree: it offers reasons or evidence intended to prove a claim false. The usual pattern is «refutación de + noun».
line of reasoning
El ensayo aporta datos interesantes, pero pierde el hilo argumental al introducir tres temas secundarios.
The essay provides interesting data, but it loses its line of reasoning when it introduces three secondary topics.
Usage note «Hilo argumental» is the logical thread connecting the parts of an argument. «Perder el hilo» can also mean losing track while speaking or listening.
burden of proof
Si afirmas que el tratamiento funciona, la carga de la prueba recae sobre ti.
If you claim that the treatment works, the burden of proof rests with you.
Usage note This legal and argumentative expression identifies who must substantiate a claim. It commonly combines with «recaer sobre alguien».
to take for granted; to assume
Los autores dan por sentado que todos los alumnos tienen conexión a internet en casa.
The authors take it for granted that every student has an internet connection at home.
Usage note Also «dar por hecho». Affirmative use takes «que + indicative»; a negative command takes the subjunctive: «no des por sentado que venga».
to maintain; to argue
La investigadora sostiene que el aumento se debe a un cambio de método.
The researcher maintains that the increase is due to a change in method.
Usage note In formal argumentation, «sostener que + clause» means to maintain a position. The verb follows the irregular conjugation of «tener»: «sostengo», «sostuvo».
to allege; to cite as an argument
La empresa alegó que el retraso se debía a circunstancias ajenas a su control.
The company claimed that the delay was due to circumstances beyond its control.
Usage note «Alegar que...» is formal and presents a reason or claim, often one not yet accepted as proven. The spelling changes to «alegue» before e.
to cast doubt on; to question
Las cifras revisadas ponen en duda que el programa haya reducido el abandono escolar.
The revised figures cast doubt on whether the program has reduced school dropout rates.
Usage note The object follows directly: «poner en duda algo». When the questioned claim is introduced with «que», Spanish often uses the subjunctive.
to draw a conclusion
No saques conclusiones precipitadas antes de comparar los resultados de ambos grupos.
Do not jump to conclusions before comparing the results from both groups.
Usage note «Sacar conclusiones» is idiomatically 'draw conclusions'; with «precipitadas», English commonly uses 'jump to conclusions'. Do not translate «sacar» here as 'take out'.
to support; to substantiate
El informe respalda sus recomendaciones con datos recogidos durante más de una década.
The report supports its recommendations with data collected over more than a decade.
Usage note Use «respaldar algo con datos/pruebas» when evidence supports a claim. Unlike «apoyar a una persona», the thing supported takes no personal «a».
to contradict
El segundo testigo contradijo la versión según la cual nadie había entrado en el edificio.
The second witness contradicted the account according to which no one had entered the building.
Usage note «Contradecir» takes a direct object and means that two statements cannot both be true; it follows «decir» in «contradigo», «contradijo» and «contradicho».
to be based on
La propuesta se basa en la experiencia de municipios que ya aplicaron una medida semejante.
The proposal is based on the experience of municipalities that have already implemented a similar measure.
Usage note This verb is pronominal and keeps «en»: «basarse en hechos». «Basar algo en algo» is the transitive alternative: «Basaron la propuesta en...».
to be unfounded; to lack any basis
La acusación carece de fundamento, ya que ningún documento vincula al funcionario con el pago.
The accusation is unfounded, since no document links the official to the payment.
Usage note «Carecer de» is formal and always requires «de». The first-person and present subjunctive use «zc»: «carezco», «carezca».
to agree that someone is right; to side with
Al final, el tribunal le dio la razón a la vecina que había denunciado el ruido.
In the end, the court sided with the neighbor who had complained about the noise.
Usage note Usually with an indirect object pronoun: «le di la razón». Contrast «tener razón» (to be right) and «quitarle la razón a alguien» (to prove someone wrong).
persuasive
La portavoz fue persuasiva porque reconoció las dudas del público antes de presentar sus datos.
The spokesperson was persuasive because she acknowledged the audience's doubts before presenting her data.
Usage note «Persuasivo» describes language or a person capable of changing opinions. Unlike «convencido», it does not mean that the speaker is personally certain.
biased; partial
El análisis es parcial: cita todos los beneficios, pero omite los costes y los riesgos.
The analysis is biased: it cites all the benefits but omits the costs and risks.
Usage note For a judgment or account, «parcial» can mean biased, the opposite of «imparcial». In «un resultado parcial», however, it means incomplete or interim.
to a certain extent
Estoy de acuerdo hasta cierto punto: la medida ahorra dinero, pero perjudica a las zonas rurales.
I agree to a certain extent: the measure saves money, but it harms rural areas.
Usage note This expression limits agreement or validity without rejecting a claim entirely. It commonly follows «estar de acuerdo» or qualifies an adjective.
therefore
El reglamento no se aprobó a tiempo; por lo tanto, las normas anteriores siguen vigentes.
The regulations were not approved in time; therefore, the previous rules remain in force.
Usage note «Por lo tanto» introduces a consequence derived from what precedes it. It is normally set off by a comma and does not require the subjunctive.
despite that; nevertheless
El estudio presenta limitaciones importantes; pese a ello, sus resultados abren una vía de investigación útil.
The study has significant limitations; nevertheless, its results open up a useful avenue for research.
Usage note This connector concedes the preceding point before maintaining the main claim. «Ello» refers to the whole prior situation and is formal, not a person.
in short; in a few words
En pocas palabras, prohibir el acceso no resuelve el problema: solo lo desplaza.
In short, banning access doesn't solve the problem: it just moves it elsewhere.
Usage note Use «en pocas palabras» to condense a longer argument into its essential point. It can introduce a blunt reformulation, so tone matters in formal debate.
Discuss institutions, rights, inequality, and collective responsibility.
procedural safeguards; due process protections
Toda persona acusada debe contar con garantías procesales, como el derecho a un juez imparcial.
Anyone accused must be afforded procedural safeguards, such as the right to an impartial judge.
Usage note This legal expression covers protections that make judicial proceedings fair. It is normally plural and combines with «contar con» or «respetar».
equal opportunity
Las becas buscan garantizar la igualdad de oportunidades entre estudiantes de distintos niveles de renta.
The scholarships aim to ensure equal opportunity among students from different income levels.
Usage note The fixed phrase uses «de oportunidades» and refers to fair access at the outset, not necessarily equal results. Common verbs are «garantizar» and «promover».
freedom of expression; freedom of speech
La libertad de expresión protege las críticas al Gobierno, pero no ampara las amenazas.
Freedom of expression protects criticism of the government, but it does not cover threats.
Usage note This is the standard legal term and is broader than spoken speech. It is often discussed with limits introduced by «no ampara...» or «está sujeta a...».
eviction
La asociación de vecinos logró frenar el desahucio de una mujer mayor que vivía sola.
The residents' association managed to stop the eviction of an elderly woman who lived alone.
Usage note Very frequent in Spanish news; the verb is «desahuciar a alguien». In medicine, «desahuciado» also describes a patient given up as terminally ill.
civic participation; public participation
El ayuntamiento abrió una consulta para fomentar la participación ciudadana en el diseño del nuevo parque.
The city council opened a consultation to encourage public participation in the design of the new park.
Usage note The phrase refers to citizens taking part in public decisions, not merely holding citizenship. «Participación» is followed by «en» for the activity.
social protection; the social safety net
Una red sólida de protección social evita que una enfermedad grave arruine a una familia.
A strong social safety net keeps a serious illness from ruining a family.
Usage note This policy term includes benefits and services that protect people from economic hardship. It is broader than «seguridad social», which often names a specific system.
social cohesion
La segregación escolar debilita la cohesión social al separar a los niños desde pequeños.
School segregation weakens social cohesion by separating children from an early age.
Usage note «Cohesión social» concerns trust, belonging and ties within a society. It is not a synonym for unanimity; cohesive groups may still disagree.
inclusion
La inclusión del alumnado con discapacidad exige adaptar tanto el edificio como los materiales didácticos.
The inclusion of students with disabilities requires adapting both the building and the teaching materials.
Usage note «Inclusión de + group» stresses removing barriers so people can participate. Unlike assimilation, it does not imply abandoning one's identity.
gap; divide; breach
La pandemia agrandó la brecha digital entre los alumnos de la ciudad y los del campo.
The pandemic widened the digital divide between urban and rural students.
Usage note Key in social debate: «brecha digital», «brecha de género», «brecha generacional». Typical verbs: «abrir», «reducir», «cerrar» or «agrandar la brecha».
the common good
El debate consiste en decidir cuándo el bien común justifica limitar determinados intereses privados.
The debate is about deciding when the common good justifies limiting certain private interests.
Usage note «El bien común» is the welfare shared by the community. Do not confuse it with «los bienes comunes», which can mean shared resources or common assets.
to exercise a right
Los trabajadores ejercieron su derecho a la huelga después de que fracasaran las negociaciones.
The workers exercised their right to strike after the negotiations broke down.
Usage note The legal collocation is «ejercer un derecho», not *«practicar un derecho». The first-person and present subjunctive change c to z: «ejerzo», «ejerza».
to assert; to enforce
La inquilina acudió a una asociación para hacer valer sus derechos frente al propietario.
The tenant went to an association to assert her rights against the landlord.
Usage note «Hacer valer un derecho» means actively ensuring that it is recognized or respected. Both verbs remain together; only «hacer» is conjugated.
to protect; to uphold
La ley ampara a quienes denuncian irregularidades de buena fe y prohíbe las represalias.
The law protects people who report wrongdoing in good faith and prohibits retaliation.
Usage note In legal register, a law «ampara a una persona» or «ampara un derecho». Use the personal «a» for protected people, but not for rights or conduct.
to safeguard; to look after
El defensor del pueblo debe velar por que la administración respete los derechos de la ciudadanía.
The ombudsman must ensure that the public administration respects citizens' rights.
Usage note «Velar por algo/alguien» means to protect it. Before a clause, use «velar por que» as three words; an intended outcome normally takes the subjunctive.
to hold someone accountable
Las familias exigen responsabilidades a las autoridades por no haber activado la alerta a tiempo.
The families are holding the authorities accountable for failing to issue the warning in time.
Usage note The pattern is «exigir responsabilidades a alguien por algo». English usually uses 'hold accountable', not the literal 'demand responsibilities'.
to report; to denounce
Varias empleadas denunciaron el acoso ante la inspección de trabajo y aportaron mensajes como prueba.
Several employees reported the harassment to the labor inspectorate and submitted messages as evidence.
Usage note «Denunciar algo ante una autoridad» means formally report it; «denunciar públicamente» means expose or condemn it. A person reported to police takes personal «a».
to be left out; to be excluded
Quienes no tengan internet quedarán excluidos del proceso si no hay alternativa presencial.
Those without internet access will be shut out of the process if there is no in-person option.
Usage note «Quedar excluido de» focuses on the resulting state and requires «de». The participle agrees with the excluded person or group.
to have a say; to have a voice
Las comunidades afectadas reclaman tener voz en las decisiones sobre la explotación del territorio.
The affected communities are demanding a say in decisions about the use of the land.
Usage note Figurative «tener voz en» means being able to influence a decision, not merely being allowed to speak. «Voz» normally remains singular in this expression.
to comply with; to fulfill
El centro deberá cumplir con las normas de accesibilidad antes de volver a abrir al público.
The center will have to comply with the accessibility standards before reopening to the public.
Usage note Use «cumplir con una norma, obligación o requisito». With goals or ages, Spanish usually omits «con»: «cumplir un objetivo», «cumplir veinte años».
accessible
La información pública debe ser accesible para las personas con discapacidad visual.
Public information must be accessible to people with visual impairments.
Usage note «Accesible para alguien» concerns practical access; «accesible a alguien» can also mean approachable. The adjective has the same form for both genders.
egalitarian; promoting equality
Un permiso parental igualitario concede el mismo tiempo de cuidado a ambos progenitores.
An equal parental leave policy grants both parents the same amount of caregiving leave.
Usage note «Igualitario» describes a system designed around equality; «igual» merely means the same or equal. The adjective changes for gender and number.
disadvantaged
El programa reserva plazas para jóvenes de entornos desfavorecidos que no podrían pagar la matrícula.
The program reserves places for young people from disadvantaged backgrounds who could not afford the tuition fees.
Usage note This neutral policy term usually modifies «grupo», «barrio» or «entorno». It indicates structural disadvantage and should not be used as a blanket label for a person.
regardless of
Toda persona recibirá atención de urgencia con independencia de su situación administrativa.
Every person will receive emergency care regardless of their immigration status.
Usage note In formal rules, this phrase means that a factor does not affect eligibility. It is followed by a noun or pronoun and is more formal than «sin importar».
in defense of; in support of
Miles de personas se manifestaron en defensa de la sanidad pública el domingo.
Thousands of people demonstrated in defense of public health care on Sunday.
Usage note The expression introduces the cause or institution being protected: «actuar en defensa de algo/alguien». It contrasts naturally with «en contra de».
unless
La protesta será legítima a no ser que vulnere los derechos de los vecinos.
The protest will be legitimate unless it violates the rights of local residents.
Usage note «A no ser que» introduces the exception that would prevent the main clause from applying and normally requires the subjunctive.
Explain markets, organizational choices, and financial consequences.
profit
La cooperativa reinvirtió el beneficio anual en renovar la maquinaria.
The cooperative reinvested its annual profit in upgrading the machinery.
Usage note In business, «beneficio» is the money left after costs; outside finance it also means a benefit or advantage. «Obtener beneficios» is a common collocation.
loss
El cierre de dos tiendas ocasionó una pérdida considerable este trimestre.
The closure of two stores caused a considerable loss this quarter.
Usage note Financial statements use «pérdidas» for negative results, often in the fixed contrast «beneficios y pérdidas». The accent distinguishes the noun from forms of «perder».
turnover; sales volume
Nuestro volumen de negocio creció al entrar en tres mercados latinoamericanos.
Our turnover grew when we entered three Latin American markets.
Usage note «Volumen de negocio» refers to the value of a company's sales, not its profit. In British business English, 'turnover' is the usual equivalent.
cost
El coste del transporte representa casi un tercio del precio final.
Transport costs account for almost a third of the final price.
Usage note «Coste» is standard in Spain, while «costo» is more widespread in Latin America. Business combinations include «coste fijo», «coste variable» and «reducir costes».
margin; profit margin
El aumento de la materia prima redujo nuestro margen de beneficio.
The rise in raw material prices reduced our profit margin.
Usage note In commerce, «margen» is the difference between revenue and cost. It is masculine in this meaning: «un margen estrecho».
supplier; provider
Cambiamos de proveedor porque las entregas llegaban con retraso casi todas las semanas.
We changed suppliers because deliveries arrived late almost every week.
Usage note A «proveedor» supplies goods or services to a business. The pattern «cambiar de proveedor» uses «de», while «proveedor de» identifies what is supplied.
workforce; staff
La empresa ampliará la plantilla para atender los nuevos contratos.
The company will expand its workforce to handle the new contracts.
Usage note In employment contexts, «plantilla» means the entire workforce, not an individual employee. It can also mean a template in office software.
bankruptcy; business failure
La falta de liquidez llevó a la compañía a la quiebra.
The lack of liquidity drove the company into bankruptcy.
Usage note «Ir a la quiebra» describes a business failure; «declararse en quiebra» is the formal legal action. Do not confuse it with the verb «quebrar», to break.
unemployment; unemployment benefit
Mi hermano lleva ocho meses en el paro y ya ha enviado cien currículos.
My brother has been out of work for eight months and has already sent out a hundred résumés.
Usage note In Spain, «estar en el paro» means to be unemployed and «cobrar el paro» to receive benefits. In Mexico and elsewhere «paro» usually means a work stoppage.
supply chain
Una huelga portuaria interrumpió la cadena de suministro durante una semana.
A port strike disrupted the supply chain for a week.
Usage note This expression covers the sequence from raw materials to delivery. Common verbs are «interrumpir», «diversificar» and «optimizar la cadena de suministro».
to undertake; to start a venture
Tras años en el sector, Lucía emprendió un negocio de consultoría ambiental.
After years in the industry, Lucía started an environmental consulting business.
Usage note «Emprender» means to begin a demanding project or business. It takes a direct object: «emprender una actividad», not «emprender en una actividad».
to attract; to secure
La empresa emergente intenta captar capital sin ceder el control del proyecto.
The start-up is trying to secure capital without giving up control of the project.
Usage note In business, «captar» commonly combines with «clientes», «fondos», «capital» or «talento» and means to attract or obtain them.
to distribute
Un socio local distribuye nuestros productos en toda la región andina.
A local partner distributes our products throughout the Andean region.
Usage note The spelling includes «y» in forms such as «distribuyo» and «distribuye». The pattern «distribuir algo entre» focuses on allocation among recipients.
to acquire; to purchase
El grupo adquirió una fábrica para aumentar su capacidad de producción.
The group acquired a factory to increase its production capacity.
Usage note «Adquirir» is more formal than «comprar» and is frequent in corporate transactions. Its present stem changes from «i» to «ie»: «adquiero».
to merge
Las dos aseguradoras acordaron fusionarse para competir en el extranjero.
The two insurance companies agreed to merge in order to compete abroad.
Usage note Companies «se fusionan con» one another. The pronominal form emphasizes that separate entities combine, while «fusionar dos departamentos» is transitive.
to outsource; to subcontract
Decidieron subcontratar el mantenimiento informático a una empresa especializada de la zona.
They decided to outsource IT maintenance to a specialist local company.
Usage note Use «subcontratar un servicio a una empresa» when an outside provider performs it. For a person hired through another company, use «personal subcontratado».
to pay off; to amortize
Esperan amortizar la inversión inicial en la nueva maquinaria antes de cuatro años.
They expect to recoup the initial investment in the new machinery within four years.
Usage note «Amortizar» can mean gradually paying off a loan or recovering the cost of an investment. The intended meaning depends on its object.
to face; to deal with
La aerolínea tendrá que afrontar pérdidas millonarias tras cancelar cientos de vuelos este verano.
The airline will have to face losses running into the millions after canceling hundreds of flights this summer.
Usage note «Afrontar» takes a direct object: «afrontar un problema, una crisis, un reto». «Hacer frente a» and «enfrentarse a» are near-synonyms that need a preposition.
competitive
Para seguir siendo competitiva, la fábrica debe reducir el consumo energético.
To remain competitive, the factory must reduce its energy consumption.
Usage note For a company or price, «competitivo» means able to compete effectively. For a person, it can also describe a strong desire to win.
viable; feasible
El proyecto solo será viable si consigue suficientes suscriptores durante el primer año.
The project will only be viable if it gains enough subscribers in its first year.
Usage note «Viable» describes a plan or business that can succeed in practice or financially. It has the same form for masculine and feminine nouns.
wholesale; wholesaler
La empresa vende café a precio mayorista, no directamente al consumidor.
The company sells coffee at a wholesale price, not directly to consumers.
Usage note «Mayorista» describes large-scale sales to retailers and can also be a noun for the seller. It is gender-invariable: «el mayorista / la mayorista».
retail; retailer
El sector minorista registró menos ventas después de las fiestas.
The retail sector recorded fewer sales after the holiday season.
Usage note «Minorista» refers to selling directly to the final consumer and contrasts with «mayorista». As a noun, it can refer to a retailer.
consequently; therefore
El principal cliente canceló el pedido; por consiguiente, habrá que revisar las previsiones.
The main client canceled the order; consequently, the forecasts will have to be revised.
Usage note «Por consiguiente» introduces a logical consequence and is more formal than «por eso». It is normally separated by commas or follows a semicolon.
with a view to; ahead of; facing
De cara a la campaña navideña, la tienda contratará a diez dependientes más.
Ahead of the Christmas season, the store will hire ten more sales assistants.
Usage note Very frequent in Spain before goals or upcoming events: «de cara al verano», «de cara al futuro». Latin America often prefers «con miras a».
in terms of
La segunda oferta es más atractiva en términos de estabilidad financiera.
The second offer is more attractive in terms of financial stability.
Usage note Use «en términos de + noun» to specify the criterion used for comparison or evaluation. Avoid it when a simpler preposition expresses the relation clearly.
Analyze coverage, sources, persuasion, and misinformation.
source
El periodista protegió la identidad de la fuente que le entregó los documentos.
The journalist protected the identity of the source who gave him the documents.
Usage note In journalism, «fuente» is a person, document or institution that provides information. «Fuentes cercanas a...» often signals an unnamed source.
lead; introductory paragraph
La entradilla resume quién tomó la decisión y por qué resulta polémica.
The lead summarizes who made the decision and why it is controversial.
Usage note In a news article, the «entradilla» is the short introduction following the headline. It presents the most important facts before the full account.
bias; partiality
La omisión de voces críticas revela la parcialidad del reportaje.
The omission of critical voices reveals the report's bias.
Usage note «Parcialidad» is a lack of neutrality in judgment or reporting. The opposite is «imparcialidad», and the common pattern is «mostrar parcialidad hacia».
speculation
Ante la ausencia de datos oficiales, la especulación se extendió por las redes.
In the absence of official data, speculation spread across social media.
Usage note In information contexts, «especulación» is an unconfirmed theory rather than a verified fact. It often appears with «evitar», «alimentar» or «dar pie a».
exclusive story; scoop
El diario publicó la exclusiva después de verificar cientos de correos.
The newspaper published the scoop after verifying hundreds of emails.
Usage note A journalistic «exclusiva» is important information obtained by one outlet before its competitors. As an adjective, «exclusivo» has broader meanings.
information leak
La fiscalía investiga una fuga de información que comprometió el operativo.
The prosecutor's office is investigating an information leak that compromised the operation.
Usage note «Fuga de información» describes confidential material reaching unauthorized people. «Filtración» is a close synonym, especially when the disclosure is deliberate.
hoax; false rumor
Durante las inundaciones circularon decenas de bulos sobre supuestos saqueos en el pueblo.
During the floods, dozens of hoaxes about alleged looting circulated in the town.
Usage note Very common in Spain for false stories spread online or by messaging apps; typical verbs are «difundir», «desmontar» and «desmentir un bulo».
media outlet; medium of communication
Cada medio de comunicación eligió una imagen distinta para abrir la noticia.
Each media outlet chose a different image to lead with the story.
Usage note The plural «los medios de comunicación» refers collectively to press, radio, television and digital outlets. Singular «medio» identifies one channel or outlet.
freedom of the press
Las asociaciones denunciaron que la nueva ley amenaza la libertad de prensa.
The associations warned that the new law threatens freedom of the press.
Usage note «Libertad de prensa» is the right of journalists and outlets to report without improper censorship or interference. It commonly combines with «defender» and «amenazar».
right to information
El tribunal antepuso el derecho a la información al deseo de privacidad del funcionario.
The court placed the right to information above the official's desire for privacy.
Usage note The construction is «derecho a + noun/infinitive». In public debate, this right may be balanced against privacy, security or confidentiality.
to verify; to fact-check
Antes de compartir el vídeo, verifica la fecha y el lugar de grabación.
Before sharing the video, verify the date and place where it was recorded.
Usage note «Verificar» means to establish accuracy through evidence. The spelling changes from «c» to «qu» before e: «verifique».
to manipulate; to tamper with
Alguien manipuló el audio para que la respuesta pareciera más agresiva.
Someone manipulated the audio to make the answer sound more aggressive.
Usage note With media, «manipular» means altering material or presenting it deceptively. It can also refer to influencing a person unfairly.
to report; to inform about
La emisora informó de varios cortes de carretera antes del amanecer.
The radio station reported several road closures before dawn.
Usage note In Spain, «informar de/sobre algo» reports a subject. To notify a person, use «informar a alguien de algo».
to reveal; to disclose
La investigación reveló vínculos financieros que no figuraban en el registro público.
The investigation revealed financial ties that did not appear in the public register.
Usage note «Revelar» introduces previously hidden or unknown information. In journalism, its subject can be a person, document, inquiry or piece of evidence.
to omit; to leave out
El artículo omitió que la empresa había financiado parte del estudio.
The article omitted the fact that the company had funded part of the study.
Usage note «Omitir» is more formal than «dejar fuera» and takes a direct object or «que + clause». An omission may be accidental or deliberate.
to go viral
El fragmento se viralizó sin el contexto necesario para entender la discusión.
The clip went viral without the context needed to understand the discussion.
Usage note The pronominal «viralizarse» means to spread rapidly online. Transitive «viralizar un contenido» focuses on making content spread.
to attribute
Varias cuentas atribuyeron la frase a la ministra, pero nunca la pronunció.
Several accounts attributed the quote to the minister, but she never said it.
Usage note Use «atribuir algo a alguien» for assigning authorship, cause or responsibility. «Atribuirse algo» means to claim it for oneself.
to put into context; to contextualize
La corresponsal contextualizó las cifras comparándolas con las de años anteriores.
The correspondent put the figures into context by comparing them with those from previous years.
Usage note «Contextualizar» means adding the circumstances needed to interpret information accurately. It is especially useful with quotations, images and statistics.
to spread; to disseminate
Varias cuentas anónimas difundieron la grabación manipulada antes de que la cadena pudiera reaccionar.
Several anonymous accounts spread the doctored recording before the network could respond.
Usage note Used for news, rumors, images and ideas: «difundir un bulo», «difundir la cultura». The noun «la difusión» also means circulation or outreach.
reliable; trustworthy
El documental ofrece un relato fidedigno respaldado por archivos judiciales.
The documentary provides a reliable account supported by court records.
Usage note «Fidedigno» describes information or testimony worthy of trust because it corresponds closely to the facts. It is more formal than «fiable».
misleading; deceptive
El gráfico es engañoso porque el eje vertical no comienza en cero.
The graph is misleading because the vertical axis does not start at zero.
Usage note «Engañoso» describes something that creates a false impression, whether intentionally or not. It frequently modifies «titular», «imagen», «dato» and «publicidad».
anonymous
El periódico recibió una denuncia anónima con datos que luego pudo confirmar.
The newspaper received an anonymous tip containing information it was later able to confirm.
Usage note «Anónimo» means that a person's identity is not disclosed. A source may remain anonymous publicly while still being known to the journalist.
allegedly; purportedly
El dinero fue transferido presuntamente a través de varias empresas ficticias.
The money was allegedly transferred through several shell companies.
Usage note Journalists use «presuntamente» when an allegation has not been legally or independently proven. It avoids presenting suspicion as established fact.
according to
Según el informe forense, la imagen había sido editada meses antes.
According to the forensic report, the image had been edited months earlier.
Usage note «Según + source» attributes information without endorsing it. Before a clause it means depending on: «según avance la investigación». Subject pronouns follow it: «según tú».
as a result of; following
A raíz de la denuncia, otros testigos decidieron hablar con la prensa.
Following the complaint, other witnesses decided to speak to the press.
Usage note «A raíz de + noun» presents an event as the trigger or origin of a later development. It is common in news reports and formal narration.
Discuss leadership, performance, conflict, and organizational change.
management team; executive team
El equipo directivo explicó la reestructuración en una reunión abierta.
The management team explained the restructuring at an open meeting.
Usage note «Equipo directivo» refers collectively to people who manage an organization. Depending on context, English may use management team, leadership team or executive team.
decision-making
La nueva estructura acerca la toma de decisiones a los equipos locales.
The new structure brings decision-making closer to local teams.
Usage note This phrase names the process of choosing among alternatives. It is usually singular even though «decisiones» is plural.
promotion; rise
Tras cinco años en la empresa, por fin le ofrecieron el ascenso a jefa de ventas.
After five years at the company, she was finally offered a promotion to head of sales.
Usage note The verb is «ascender» (e→ie): «la ascendieron a directora». It is also used for a sports team moving up a league.
staff turnover; employee turnover
La rotación de personal disminuyó cuando mejoraron las oportunidades de promoción.
Staff turnover fell when promotion opportunities improved.
Usage note «Rotación de personal» measures how frequently employees leave and are replaced. It does not refer to rotating workstations or shifts.
workplace climate; work environment
Una comunicación más transparente con la dirección contribuyó a mejorar el clima laboral.
More transparent communication with management helped improve the workplace climate.
Usage note «Clima laboral» is employees' shared perception of relationships and conditions at work. It is more specific than the physical «entorno de trabajo».
performance appraisal; performance review
La evaluación del desempeño tendrá en cuenta resultados y capacidad de colaboración.
The performance review will take both results and the ability to collaborate into account.
Usage note This formal HR term assesses how an employee carries out a role. «Desempeño» here means job performance, not effort alone.
incentive
El bono funciona como incentivo para superar los objetivos de calidad.
The bonus acts as an incentive to exceed the quality targets.
Usage note An «incentivo» encourages a behavior and may be financial or nonfinancial. Common patterns are «incentivo para + infinitive» and «servir de incentivo».
sick leave; medical leave
Solicitó la baja laboral mientras se recuperaba de la operación.
She requested medical leave while recovering from the operation.
Usage note In Spain, «baja laboral» is officially authorized absence due to illness or injury. Usage and legal arrangements vary across Spanish-speaking countries.
replacement; succession; handover
La subdirectora tomará el relevo cuando el fundador se jubile.
The deputy director will take over when the founder retires.
Usage note «Tomar el relevo» means taking over someone's duties or leadership. The image comes from passing the baton in a relay race.
work-life balance
Muchas empresas ofrecen horario flexible para facilitar la conciliación laboral y familiar de sus empleados.
Many companies offer flexible hours to make work-life balance easier for their employees.
Usage note Short for «conciliación de la vida laboral y familiar»; the verb is «conciliar el trabajo con la familia». In law, «conciliación» can also mean mediation.
remote work; working from home
Desde que la empresa aprobó el teletrabajo, Lucía solo va a la oficina los lunes.
Since the company approved remote work, Lucía only goes into the office on Mondays.
Usage note The verb is «teletrabajar». Many speakers also say «trabajar en remoto», and «home office» is widely used in Mexico and South America.
strike
Los maestros convocaron una huelga indefinida para exigir mejores salarios y menos alumnos por aula.
The teachers called an indefinite strike to demand better pay and fewer students per class.
Usage note Collocations: «convocar una huelga», «hacer huelga», «estar en huelga», «huelga general», «huelga de hambre». A striker is «el/la huelguista».
to lead
Marta lideró la transición sin ocultar las dificultades al equipo.
Marta led the transition without hiding the difficulties from the team.
Usage note «Liderar» takes a direct object such as «un equipo», «un proyecto» or «un cambio». It implies guiding, not merely occupying the highest position.
to motivate
Reconocer las aportaciones individuales motivó al grupo más que el premio económico.
Recognizing individual contributions motivated the group more than the financial reward did.
Usage note «Motivar a alguien a + infinitive» encourages action; «estar motivado para» describes readiness. «Motivar» can also formally mean to provide reasons for a decision.
to settle; to resolve decisively
Una conversación directa permitió zanjar el desacuerdo sobre las responsabilidades.
A direct conversation made it possible to settle the disagreement over responsibilities.
Usage note «Zanjar un asunto/conflicto» means resolving it conclusively so it no longer remains open. It is stronger than merely discussing or managing it.
to prioritize
Ante la falta de recursos, priorizamos las tareas con mayor impacto.
Given the lack of resources, we prioritized the tasks with the greatest impact.
Usage note «Priorizar» means assigning greater importance or urgency. It takes a direct object and can be followed by «frente a» to contrast two options.
to blame
El gerente le echó la culpa del retraso al proveedor, pero nadie le creyó.
The manager blamed the supplier for the delay, but nobody believed him.
Usage note Pattern: «echar la culpa de algo a alguien», usually with «le»: «siempre me echan la culpa a mí». More colloquial than «culpar».
to take command; to take charge
El responsable regional asumió el mando durante la ausencia de la directora.
The regional manager took charge during the director's absence.
Usage note This expression marks taking authority and responsibility for directing others. «Mando» remains singular in the usual fixed phrase.
to perform; to be productive
Nadie rinde bien durante semanas si recibe mensajes de trabajo a medianoche.
No one performs well for weeks if they receive work messages at midnight.
Usage note In work contexts, «rendir» means producing an expected result or performing effectively. «Rendirse» is a different pronominal verb meaning to give up.
resourceful; solution-oriented
Buscamos a alguien resolutivo que actúe con calma ante los imprevistos.
We are looking for someone resourceful who responds calmly to unexpected problems.
Usage note A «persona resolutiva» identifies problems and acts effectively to solve them. The closest English equivalent depends on context: resourceful, decisive or solution-oriented.
effective
La reunión fue eficaz porque terminó con responsables y plazos concretos.
The meeting was effective because it ended with clear owners and deadlines.
Usage note «Eficaz» means achieving the intended result. Contrast «eficiente», which emphasizes doing so with minimal time or resources.
demanding; exacting
Es una supervisora exigente, pero nunca pide algo que ella no haría.
She is a demanding supervisor, but she never asks for anything she would not do herself.
Usage note «Exigente» may describe a person who sets high standards or a task requiring great effort. It is gender-invariable.
by mutual agreement
Tras varias reuniones, las partes modificaron el calendario de entregas de mutuo acuerdo.
After several meetings, the parties changed the delivery schedule by mutual agreement.
Usage note This expression states that everyone involved consented to a decision. It commonly follows verbs such as «decidir», «modificar» and «rescindir».
on condition that; provided that
Aprobaron el teletrabajo con la condición de que el equipo acudiera los jueves.
They approved remote work on condition that the team came in on Thursdays.
Usage note This conjunction introduces a requirement and triggers the subjunctive because the condition is prospective. Shorter synonyms: «siempre que», «con tal de que».
even when; even though
La responsable escucha las críticas aun cuando no comparte el diagnóstico.
The manager listens to criticism even when she does not share the assessment.
Usage note Use the indicative for a known fact and the subjunctive for a hypothetical concession. In this expression, «aun» means even and is written without an accent.
Express complex reactions, judgments, and psychological processes.
mood
Dormir mal altera mi estado de ánimo durante todo el día.
Sleeping badly affects my mood throughout the day.
Usage note «Estado de ánimo» is a relatively lasting emotional condition, unlike a brief reaction. Common verbs are «alterar», «mejorar» and «reflejar».
uncertainty
La incertidumbre sobre el diagnóstico le impedía hacer planes para el verano.
The uncertainty about the diagnosis kept her from making plans for the summer.
Usage note «Incertidumbre sobre/acerca de» expresses lack of certainty about an outcome or fact. The singular often describes the general feeling.
disappointment
No pudo ocultar su decepción al conocer el resultado de la beca.
He could not hide his disappointment when he learned the scholarship result.
Usage note «Decepción» is the feeling produced when expectations are not met. «Llevarse una decepción» means to be disappointed by an outcome.
relief
Sintió un enorme alivio cuando confirmaron que nadie estaba herido.
She felt enormous relief when they confirmed that no one was injured.
Usage note «Alivio» is the easing of worry, pain or burden. Emotional usage often combines with «sentir» and the exclamation «¡Qué alivio!».
shame; embarrassment
Por vergüenza, evitó admitir que no había entendido las instrucciones.
Out of embarrassment, he avoided admitting that he had not understood the instructions.
Usage note «Vergüenza» ranges from social embarrassment to moral shame. «Dar vergüenza» describes what embarrasses you; «tener vergüenza» can imply decency.
nostalgia; homesickness
La canción le provocó nostalgia por los veranos de su infancia.
The song made her nostalgic for the summers of her childhood.
Usage note «Nostalgia de/por» is a bittersweet longing for a past time, place or person. In migration contexts it may overlap with homesickness.
self-confidence
Hablar en público le ayudó a recuperar la confianza en sí misma.
Public speaking helped her regain her self-confidence.
Usage note The reflexive element agrees with the person: «en mí mismo/a», «en ti mismo/a», «en sí mismo/a». It describes trust in one's own abilities or judgment.
resentment; grudge
Aunque su socio la engañó hace años, ella asegura que no le guarda rencor.
Although her business partner deceived her years ago, she insists she holds no grudge against him.
Usage note Typical collocation: «guardar rencor a alguien» (to hold a grudge). The adjective «rencoroso» describes someone who does not forgive easily.
disillusionment; bitter disappointment
Después de varios desengaños amorosos, Marta decidió centrarse en su carrera durante un tiempo.
After several romantic letdowns, Marta decided to focus on her career for a while.
Usage note Stronger than «decepción»: the painful realization that someone or something was not what you believed. Very common in «desengaño amoroso».
to reflect; to think carefully
Necesito reflexionar con calma sobre lo ocurrido antes de responder a tu mensaje.
I need to reflect calmly on what happened before replying to your message.
Usage note «Reflexionar sobre/acerca de algo» means considering it deliberately and in depth. Unlike «pensar en», it emphasizes careful examination.
to doubt
Después de tantos rechazos, empezó a dudar de su propio criterio.
After so many rejections, he began to doubt his own judgment.
Usage note Use «dudar de + noun/pronoun» but usually «dudar que + subjunctive» before a clause. «No dudar en + infinitive» means not hesitating to act.
to feel overwhelmed; to get stressed out
No te agobies con la mudanza; entre todos lo tendremos listo antes del viernes.
Don't stress about the move; between all of us we'll have it ready before Friday.
Usage note Especially frequent in Spain; «estar agobiado» means feeling swamped or suffocated. The noun is «el agobio»; «¡qué agobio!» is a common complaint.
to restrain oneself; to hold back
Tuvo que contenerse para no interrumpir mientras escuchaba la acusación.
He had to restrain himself from interrupting while listening to the accusation.
Usage note «Contenerse para no + infinitive» means controlling an impulse or reaction. It follows the irregular conjugation of «tener»: «contengo», «contuvo».
to become obsessed with
Se obsesionó con evitar cualquier error y acabó revisándolo todo tres veces.
He became obsessed with avoiding any mistake and ended up checking everything three times.
Usage note This pronominal verb keeps «con» before its focus. It implies that a thought or goal occupies the mind excessively.
to resign oneself to; to accept reluctantly
No se resignó a perder el contacto y siguió escribiendo cartas.
She refused to resign herself to losing touch and kept writing letters.
Usage note «Resignarse a + noun/infinitive» means reluctantly accepting an unpleasant situation as unavoidable. It is not the usual verb for quitting a job.
to distrust; to be suspicious of
Desconfía de los elogios exagerados porque suelen ocultar una petición.
She is suspicious of exaggerated praise because it often conceals a request.
Usage note «Desconfiar de» requires «de» before a person, thing or intention. The written accent in «desconfío» preserves the stressed «í».
to become aware of
Al escuchar a los demás, tomó conciencia de cómo sus palabras habían dolido.
By listening to the others, he became aware of how much his words had hurt.
Usage note This expression marks a process of recognizing or fully understanding something, not merely receiving information. It always retains «de».
to put oneself in someone's shoes
Si te pones en el lugar de tu hermana, entenderás por qué reaccionó así.
If you put yourself in your sister's shoes, you'll understand why she reacted that way.
Usage note Also «ponerse en la piel de alguien» and, mainly in Latin America, «ponerse en los zapatos de alguien». A key phrase for expressing empathy.
perplexed; baffled
Me quedé perplejo al ver que celebraban una decisión tan arriesgada.
I was baffled to see them celebrating such a risky decision.
Usage note «Perplejo» expresses puzzled surprise when something is difficult to understand. It commonly follows «estar» or «quedarse».
overwhelming
La respuesta del público fue abrumadora: recibieron miles de mensajes en una hora.
The public response was overwhelming: they received thousands of messages in one hour.
Usage note «Abrumador» describes an amount, feeling or response so intense that it is hard to manage. It can be positive or negative depending on context.
calm; composed
Aunque estaba preocupado, mantuvo un tono sereno durante la conversación.
Although he was worried, he maintained a calm tone throughout the conversation.
Usage note «Sereno» emphasizes emotional composure and clear judgment, not merely silence. Common combinations include «mantenerse sereno» and «tono sereno».
touchy; easily offended
Está tan susceptible últimamente que interpreta cualquier comentario como una crítica.
He has been so touchy lately that he interprets every comment as criticism.
Usage note For a person, «susceptible» often means easily offended. In formal «ser susceptible de + infinitive», it instead means capable of or liable to.
deep down; fundamentally
En el fondo, sabía que su enfado no tenía que ver con aquel comentario.
Deep down, she knew that her anger had nothing to do with that comment.
Usage note In psychological contexts, «en el fondo» introduces a deeper feeling or truth beneath appearances. It can also mean fundamentally in an argument.
without realizing it; unknowingly
Sin darse cuenta, repetía los mismos gestos que tanto le molestaban de su padre.
Without realizing it, he repeated the same gestures that annoyed him so much in his father.
Usage note The reflexive pronoun changes with the subject: «sin darme cuenta», «sin darte cuenta». The expression marks a lack of conscious awareness.
despite everything; nevertheless
La despedida fue dolorosa; a pesar de todo, sintió que había tomado la decisión correcta.
The farewell was painful; despite everything, she felt she had made the right decision.
Usage note This connector acknowledges all preceding difficulties before presenting a contrasting outcome. Unlike «a pesar de que», it is not followed by a clause.
Discuss research methods, digital systems, and how technology is developed and assessed.
precision; accuracy
La precisión del reloj permite medir diferencias de una milésima de segundo.
The clock's precision makes it possible to measure differences of one thousandth of a second.
Usage note «Precisión» refers to exactness; in measurement contexts, it often appears with «grado de» or «margen de precisión».
margin of error
La encuesta tiene un margen de error de dos puntos porcentuales.
The survey has a margin of error of two percentage points.
Usage note The plural of «margen» is «márgenes». Use «un margen de error de + amount» to quantify uncertainty.
protocol; procedure
El laboratorio modificó el protocolo para evitar que las muestras se contaminaran.
The laboratory changed the protocol to prevent the samples from becoming contaminated.
Usage note In research, «protocolo» is an agreed sequence of procedures, not merely a rule of etiquette.
device
Este dispositivo registra el ritmo cardíaco y envía los datos al teléfono.
This device records the heart rate and sends the data to the phone.
Usage note «Dispositivo» is a broad term for an electronic or mechanical device; «aparato» is often less technical.
encryption
El cifrado protege los mensajes mientras circulan por redes públicas.
Encryption protects messages while they travel across public networks.
Usage note In computing, «cifrado» is the process or system that makes information unreadable without a key.
machine learning
El aprendizaje automático permite reconocer patrones que un programador no ha definido de antemano.
Machine learning can recognize patterns that a programmer has not defined in advance.
Usage note This is the standard Spanish equivalent of 'machine learning'; it is a branch of artificial intelligence, not a synonym for all AI.
database
La universidad creó una base de datos anónima con miles de historiales clínicos.
The university created an anonymous database containing thousands of medical records.
Usage note «Datos» remains plural inside the compound: «una base de datos / varias bases de datos».
patent
La empresa solicitó una patente antes de presentar públicamente su invento.
The company applied for a patent before publicly presenting its invention.
Usage note A «patente» grants legal protection to an invention; the usual collocations are «solicitar», «registrar» and «conceder una patente».
prototype
El primer prototipo funcionaba, aunque consumía demasiada energía para venderlo.
The first prototype worked, although it used too much energy to be sold.
Usage note A «prototipo» is an early model built to test a design before large-scale production.
sensor
Un sensor detecta cuándo la tierra está seca y activa el riego.
A sensor detects when the soil is dry and activates the irrigation system.
Usage note «Sensor» names a component that detects physical changes such as light, movement, heat, or pressure.
challenge
Almacenar la energía solar de forma barata sigue siendo el gran reto de los ingenieros.
Storing solar energy cheaply remains the great challenge for engineers.
Usage note Near-synonym of «el desafío»; both combine with «plantear», «asumir» or «superar un reto». In parts of South America «retar» means to scold.
finding; discovery
Los arqueólogos anunciaron el hallazgo de una tumba intacta cerca de la antigua ciudad maya.
The archaeologists announced the discovery of an intact tomb near the ancient Maya city.
Usage note From the formal verb «hallar» (to find). More journalistic than «descubrimiento»; also used for research results: «los hallazgos del estudio».
breakdown; fault
Una avería en el sistema informático dejó sin servicio a miles de clientes del banco.
A fault in the computer system left thousands of the bank's customers without service.
Usage note Used for machines, vehicles and networks; the verb is «averiarse» («se averió el coche»). For software, «fallo» (Latin America: «falla») is more usual.
to calibrate
Los técnicos calibraron la balanza con una pesa cuyo valor ya conocían.
The technicians calibrated the scale using a weight whose value they already knew.
Usage note «Calibrar» means to adjust a measuring instrument against a known reference so that its readings are accurate.
to measure
El equipo midió la calidad del agua en veinte puntos del río.
The team measured the water quality at twenty points along the river.
Usage note «Medir» is irregular in several forms: «mido», «midió» and «midiendo». It can also mean to be a certain size.
to detect; to identify
El programa detectó una actividad inusual y bloqueó el acceso a la cuenta.
The program detected unusual activity and blocked access to the account.
Usage note «Detectar» implies discovering something that may not be immediately visible, such as a fault, disease, or pattern.
to simulate
Antes de construir el puente, los ingenieros simularon su respuesta ante vientos fuertes.
Before building the bridge, the engineers simulated its response to strong winds.
Usage note In technical contexts, «simular» means to model a real process; in everyday contexts it can also mean to pretend.
to program; to schedule
Han programado el robot para que se detenga si encuentra un obstáculo.
They have programmed the robot to stop if it encounters an obstacle.
Usage note Use «programar algo para que + subjunctive» for intended behavior. The verb can also mean to schedule an event.
to encrypt; to estimate at
La aplicación cifra cada archivo antes de guardarlo en la nube.
The application encrypts each file before saving it to the cloud.
Usage note With digital information, «cifrar» means to encrypt. «Cifrar algo en una cantidad» has the separate meaning of estimating its value.
to store
El sistema almacena las imágenes localmente y las borra al cabo de una semana.
The system stores the images locally and deletes them after a week.
Usage note «Almacenar» is used for both physical goods and digital data; it emphasizes keeping something for later use.
to configure; to set up
Puedes configurar el navegador para que elimine las cookies al cerrar cada sesión.
You can configure the browser to delete cookies whenever you close a session.
Usage note «Configurar algo para que + subjunctive» sets how a device or program will behave under certain conditions.
precise; accurate
Necesitamos un diagnóstico más preciso antes de elegir el tratamiento.
We need a more accurate diagnosis before choosing the treatment.
Usage note As an adjective after a noun, «preciso» means exact or accurate. In «es preciso», it can instead mean 'it is necessary'.
in advance; beforehand
Los investigadores fijaron de antemano los criterios para no interpretar los datos a su favor.
The researchers set the criteria in advance so as not to interpret the data in their favor.
Usage note More formal than «antes» or «con antelación». Very common in «gracias de antemano», the standard closing line of an email making a request.
as a consequence of; as a result of
Como consecuencia del fallo de seguridad, la plataforma cambió el sistema de acceso.
As a result of the security failure, the platform changed its access system.
Usage note «Como consecuencia de» explicitly marks a cause and is common in formal explanations of technical events.
in the event that; if
El servidor secundario se activa en caso de que el principal deje de responder.
The secondary server is activated in the event that the main one stops responding.
Usage note «En caso de que» introduces a possible future condition and therefore requires the subjunctive.
Explain environmental pressures, practical responses, and the policies behind ecological change.
energy transition
La transición energética exige ampliar la red eléctrica, no solo instalar paneles solares.
The energy transition requires expanding the power grid, not just installing solar panels.
Usage note «Transición energética» describes the structural shift from fossil fuels toward low-carbon energy systems.
global warming
El calentamiento global está alterando la duración de las estaciones en muchas regiones.
Global warming is changing the length of the seasons in many regions.
Usage note «Calentamiento global» specifically refers to rising average temperatures; «cambio climático» includes its wider effects.
drought
Tras tres años de sequía, los embalses de la región apenas llegan al veinte por ciento.
After three years of drought, the region's reservoirs are barely at twenty percent.
Usage note Note the written accent on the «í». Common phrases: «una sequía severa», «pasar por una sequía» and «declarar el estado de sequía».
landfill; dump
Casi la mitad de los residuos urbanos todavía termina en un vertedero sin tratamiento previo.
Almost half of urban waste still ends up in a landfill without prior treatment.
Usage note Related to «verter» (to dump). A «vertedero ilegal» is an illegal dump; in Mexico «tiradero» is the everyday word for an open dump.
circular economy
La economía circular busca que los materiales se reutilicen en lugar de acabar en la basura.
The circular economy aims for materials to be reused rather than ending up as waste.
Usage note «Economía circular» is a model based on reducing waste through reuse, repair, and recycling.
waste management
El municipio encargó la gestión de residuos orgánicos a una cooperativa local.
The municipality entrusted organic waste management to a local cooperative.
Usage note «Gestión de residuos» includes collection, treatment, recovery, and final disposal rather than recycling alone.
thaw; melting of ice
El deshielo de los glaciares andinos amenaza el suministro de agua de varias ciudades.
The melting of Andean glaciers threatens the water supply of several cities.
Usage note From «deshelar(se)» (to thaw). Also used figuratively for improving relations: «el deshielo entre los dos gobiernos».
environmental impact
La obra quedó suspendida hasta que se evaluara su impacto ambiental.
Construction was suspended until its environmental impact could be assessed.
Usage note Common collocations are «evaluar», «reducir» and «estudio de impacto ambiental».
climate emergency
Varias ciudades declararon la emergencia climática y adelantaron sus metas de reducción.
Several cities declared a climate emergency and brought forward their reduction targets.
Usage note «Emergencia climática» frames climate change as an urgent threat requiring immediate action.
carbon footprint
Comprar fruta de temporada y de la zona reduce bastante la huella de carbono familiar.
Buying local seasonal fruit cuts a household's carbon footprint considerably.
Usage note «Huella» means footprint or trace: «huella dactilar» (fingerprint), «dejar huella» (to leave a mark). «Huella ecológica» is a broader measure.
shortage; scarcity
La escasez de lluvias ha obligado a restringir el riego en toda la comarca.
The lack of rain has forced irrigation restrictions across the whole district.
Usage note Usually «escasez de + noun»: «escasez de agua», «de vivienda», «de personal». The adjective «escaso» means scarce; the plural «escaseces» is rare.
greenhouse effect
El metano del ganado contribuye al efecto invernadero más de lo que mucha gente cree.
Methane from livestock contributes to the greenhouse effect more than many people think.
Usage note On its own, «invernadero» is a greenhouse for plants. Related: «los gases de efecto invernadero» (greenhouse gases), often abbreviated GEI.
to decarbonize
El país pretende descarbonizar el transporte público antes de 2040.
The country intends to decarbonize public transport before 2040.
Usage note «Descarbonizar» means to reduce or eliminate carbon emissions from an activity, sector, or economy.
to reforest
La asociación reforestó las laderas con árboles propios de la región.
The association reforested the hillsides with trees native to the region.
Usage note «Reforestar» means to restore tree cover; using native species is expressed with «con especies autóctonas».
to purify; to treat
La planta depura las aguas residuales antes de devolverlas al río.
The plant treats wastewater before returning it to the river.
Usage note In environmental contexts, «depurar agua» means to remove pollutants; «planta depuradora» is a treatment plant.
to dump; to discharge; to pour
La nueva ley prohíbe verter sustancias tóxicas en el alcantarillado de la ciudad.
The new law prohibits dumping toxic substances into the city's sewer system.
Usage note «Verter» changes e→ie in stressed forms. With pollutants, it means to discharge them into water or land.
to regenerate; to restore
El proyecto intenta regenerar los humedales que quedaron aislados por la carretera.
The project aims to restore wetlands that were cut off by the road.
Usage note «Regenerar» focuses on enabling a damaged ecosystem or area to recover its functions.
to waste
En aquel comedor escolar se desperdiciaba casi un tercio de la comida cada día.
In that school cafeteria, almost a third of the food was wasted every day.
Usage note Also used for chances: «desperdiciar una oportunidad». «Malgastar» stresses money or resources spent badly; the noun is «el desperdicio».
to fell; to cut down (trees)
La empresa maderera taló cientos de árboles centenarios sin tener los permisos necesarios.
The logging company cut down hundreds of century-old trees without the necessary permits.
Usage note Used only for trees and forests; the noun is «la tala» («tala ilegal», illegal logging). «Cortar un árbol» is the everyday alternative.
disposable; throwaway
La ciudad prohibirá los vasos de usar y tirar en todas sus fiestas populares.
The city will ban disposable cups at all of its public festivals.
Usage note Invariable: «vasos de usar y tirar». Synonyms: «desechable», «de un solo uso». Also a critique of consumerism: «la sociedad de usar y tirar».
polluting; pollutant
El ayuntamiento sustituirá las calderas más contaminantes de los edificios públicos.
The city council will replace the most polluting boilers in public buildings.
Usage note As an adjective, «contaminante» describes something that causes pollution; as a noun, it names a pollutant.
efficient
Un edificio eficiente mantiene una temperatura estable con mucho menos consumo.
An efficient building maintains a stable temperature while using much less energy.
Usage note «Eficiente» means achieving a result with limited resources; «eficaz» emphasizes achieving the intended result.
harmful; detrimental
La pesca con redes abandonadas resulta perjudicial para tortugas y aves marinas.
Fishing with abandoned nets is harmful to turtles and seabirds.
Usage note «Perjudicial para» introduces the person, species, or system harmed and is more formal than «malo para».
in the long run; eventually
Aislar bien la casa cuesta dinero, pero a la larga se ahorra mucho en calefacción.
Insulating the house properly costs money, but in the long run you save a lot on heating.
Usage note More colloquial than «a largo plazo». Often contrasts a short-term cost with a later benefit; «a la corta o a la larga» means sooner or later.
in matters of; regarding
La región ha avanzado en materia de protección costera, pero no de transporte limpio.
The region has made progress in coastal protection, but not in clean transport.
Usage note «En materia de» is a formal way to delimit a policy area or subject under discussion.
Follow legal procedures, public institutions, and debates about civic decisions and accountability.
jurisdiction
El caso corresponde a la jurisdicción laboral porque afecta a un contrato de trabajo.
The case falls under labor jurisdiction because it concerns an employment contract.
Usage note «Jurisdicción» is the legal authority of a court or the area over which that authority extends.
public prosecutor's office
La fiscalía abrió diligencias tras recibir el informe de la policía.
The public prosecutor's office opened proceedings after receiving the police report.
Usage note «Fiscalía» denotes the institution that prosecutes crimes; «fiscal» is the individual prosecutor.
defense; legal counsel
La defensa pidió que se excluyera una grabación obtenida sin autorización.
The defense asked for a recording obtained without authorization to be excluded.
Usage note In a trial, «la defensa» can mean either the legal argument or the lawyer or team representing the accused.
case file; official record
El abogado pidió acceso al expediente para revisar las declaraciones de los testigos.
The lawyer requested access to the case file to review the witness statements.
Usage note An «expediente» is the organized set of documents relating to an administrative or judicial proceeding.
appeal
La apelación se centra en varios errores cometidos durante el proceso.
The appeal focuses on several errors made during the proceedings.
Usage note «Apelación» is the review of a lower court's decision; use «en apelación» for 'on appeal'.
verdict
El jurado alcanzó un veredicto unánime después de seis horas de deliberación.
The jury reached a unanimous verdict after six hours of deliberation.
Usage note A jury issues a «veredicto»; a judge or court generally issues a «sentencia» or «fallo».
public hearing
Los vecinos expresaron sus objeciones al proyecto durante la audiencia pública.
Residents voiced their objections to the project during the public hearing.
Usage note An «audiencia pública» allows citizens or interested groups to present views before an official decision.
term of office; mandate
Durante su segundo mandato, la alcaldesa impulsó una reforma del transporte.
During her second term in office, the mayor promoted a transport reform.
Usage note «Mandato» may be the period an elected official serves or the authority voters give that official.
public administration
La administración pública debe justificar cómo utiliza los fondos que recibe.
The public administration must explain how it uses the funds it receives.
Usage note The singular refers broadly to government administration; the plural often refers to different public bodies or levels of government.
procedure; formality; paperwork
Renovar el pasaporte ya es un trámite sencillo que se puede iniciar por internet.
Renewing your passport is now a simple procedure that you can start online.
Usage note Often plural for red tape: «hacer los trámites». «Un mero trámite» means a mere formality; the related verb «tramitar» means to process.
sentence; conviction; condemnation
El exdirector cumplirá una condena de seis años por desviar fondos públicos a su empresa.
The former director will serve a six-year sentence for diverting public funds to his company.
Usage note «Cumplir condena» means to serve a sentence. It also means public condemnation: «la condena unánime del atentado». Verb: «condenar a alguien a algo».
bribe; bribery
La constructora fue acusada de pagar sobornos a varios funcionarios para ganar el contrato.
The construction company was accused of paying bribes to several officials to win the contract.
Usage note Verb: «sobornar a alguien». In Mexico and Central America, «la mordida» is the colloquial word for a small bribe, especially to police.
to be accountable; to answer for
Los alcaldes deberán rendir cuentas ante los vecinos sobre cómo gastan el presupuesto municipal.
Mayors will have to answer to residents for how they spend the municipal budget.
Usage note Pattern: «rendir cuentas ante alguien de/por algo». «Rendir» changes e→i: «rindo», «rindió». The noun is «la rendición de cuentas» (accountability).
to legislate
El parlamento decidió legislar sobre el uso comercial de datos biométricos.
Parliament decided to legislate on the commercial use of biometric data.
Usage note «Legislar sobre/en materia de» means to make laws governing a subject; people comply with laws but legislatures create them.
to charge; to formally accuse
El juez imputó al directivo un delito de falsificación documental.
The judge charged the executive with document forgery.
Usage note The legal pattern is «imputar a alguien un delito». Terminology varies by country and judicial system.
to appeal
La asociación anunció que apelaría contra la resolución que prohibía la marcha.
The association announced that it would appeal the ruling that banned the march.
Usage note In legal use, «apelar contra una resolución» means to ask a higher court to review it; «apelar a» can instead mean to invoke or call upon.
to formally notify
La oficina notificará por escrito a cada solicitante si su petición ha sido aceptada.
The office will notify each applicant in writing whether their request has been accepted.
Usage note «Notificar algo a alguien» is a formal administrative or legal communication; the spelling changes to «notifique» before e.
to comply with; to abide by
Aunque discrepa del fallo, el ministro afirmó que lo acatará.
Although he disagrees with the ruling, the minister said he will abide by it.
Usage note «Acatar» means to accept and obey an authoritative decision, order, or law, even without agreeing with it.
to breach; to fail to comply with
La empresa incumplió el contrato al compartir información confidencial con terceros.
The company breached the contract by sharing confidential information with third parties.
Usage note «Incumplir» takes a direct object such as «la ley», «una obligación» or «un contrato» and is the opposite of «cumplir».
to deliberate
El comité deliberó a puerta cerrada antes de publicar su recomendación.
The committee deliberated behind closed doors before publishing its recommendation.
Usage note «Deliberar» means to discuss and weigh options carefully before reaching a collective decision.
to come into force; to take effect
La nueva ley de vivienda entrará en vigor en todo el país el próximo enero.
The new housing law will come into force nationwide next January.
Usage note Used with laws, rules and contracts. Related: «estar en vigor» (to be in force) and the adjective «vigente» (current, in force).
legitimate; lawful
La protesta es legítima siempre que respete los derechos de quienes no participan.
The protest is legitimate as long as it respects the rights of those not taking part.
Usage note «Legítimo» can mean lawful, justified, or socially recognized; it is broader than strictly «legal».
discretionary
La autoridad dispone de cierto margen discrecional, pero debe explicar por qué elige una opción.
The authority has some discretionary power, but it must explain why it chooses one option.
Usage note «Discrecional» allows an authority some judgment within legal limits; it does not mean that a decision may be wholly arbitrary.
under the protection of; under the authority of
La organización solicitó los documentos al amparo de la ley de transparencia.
The organization requested the documents under the freedom of information law.
Usage note In legal language, «al amparo de» cites the law or right that provides protection or authority for an action.
except in the event that; unless
La sesión será pública, salvo en el caso de que el tribunal proteja a un menor.
The hearing will be public, except in the event that the court protects a minor.
Usage note This formal exception phrase takes the subjunctive because it presents a possible circumstance that would change the rule. Shorter form: «salvo que».
Analyze artistic choices, cultural reception, and the ideas that give works meaning over time.
masterpiece
Muchos críticos consideran «Cien años de soledad» la obra maestra de García Márquez.
Many critics consider «One Hundred Years of Solitude» García Márquez's masterpiece.
Usage note «Obra» covers any creative work: «obra de teatro», «obra de arte». «Maestra» agrees with the feminine noun, so there is no masculine form.
creation; creative work
La novela mezcla investigación histórica y creación para reconstruir una vida apenas documentada.
The novel combines historical research and creative invention to reconstruct a scarcely documented life.
Usage note «Creación» can name the creative process or the resulting work; context distinguishes the two.
box office; ticket office
La comedia fue un éxito de taquilla, aunque la crítica la recibió con bastante frialdad.
The comedy was a box-office hit, although critics received it rather coolly.
Usage note «Éxito/fracaso de taquilla» means box-office hit/flop. In Spain «taquilla» is also a locker; much of South America calls the ticket office «la boletería».
narrative; storytelling
La exposición propone una narrativa distinta sobre la historia industrial de la ciudad.
The exhibition offers a different narrative of the city's industrial history.
Usage note «Narrativa» may refer to prose fiction or to the way events are organized into a meaningful account.
stage production; staging
El montaje escénico sitúa la tragedia clásica en una estación de metro contemporánea.
The stage production sets the classical tragedy in a contemporary subway station.
Usage note «Montaje escénico» refers to how a theatrical work is assembled for performance, including direction, space, lighting, and movement.
critical reception
La recepción crítica fue fría al principio, pero la película ganó prestigio con los años.
The critical reception was cool at first, but the film gained prestige over the years.
Usage note «Recepción crítica» describes how professional critics respond to a work, as distinct from audience popularity.
aesthetic; aesthetics
La estética minimalista del edificio contrasta con la ornamentación de las casas vecinas.
The building's minimalist aesthetic contrasts with the ornamentation of the neighboring houses.
Usage note «Estética» can mean a theory of beauty or the recognizable visual style of a work, artist, or period.
avant-garde; forefront
En los años veinte, aquella revista reunió a figuras de la vanguardia latinoamericana.
In the 1920s, that magazine brought together figures from the Latin American avant-garde.
Usage note In culture, «la vanguardia» refers to movements that break with established artistic conventions.
repertoire
La orquesta amplió su repertorio con obras de compositoras que rara vez se interpretaban.
The orchestra expanded its repertoire with works by women composers that were rarely performed.
Usage note «Repertorio» is the set of works that a performer or company is prepared to present; «ampliar el repertorio» is a common collocation.
continued relevance; validity
La vigencia de la obra se debe a que plantea conflictos que aún reconocemos.
The work remains relevant because it presents conflicts we still recognize.
Usage note For a cultural work, «vigencia» means continued relevance; for a law, it refers to being in force.
premiere; debut; opening
El estreno de la película en Guadalajara reunió a buena parte del reparto original.
The film's premiere in Guadalajara brought together much of the original cast.
Usage note Verb: «estrenar», also used for wearing or using something for the first time: «hoy estreno zapatos». «De estreno» means newly released.
to reinterpret
La compañía reinterpreta el mito desde la perspectiva del personaje secundario.
The company reinterprets the myth from the secondary character's perspective.
Usage note «Reinterpretar» means to give existing material a new meaning or approach, not merely to reproduce it.
to capture; to express concretely
La fotógrafa plasmó en sus retratos la soledad de quienes acababan de emigrar.
In her portraits, the photographer captured the loneliness of people who had recently emigrated.
Usage note «Plasmar algo en una obra» means to give an idea, feeling, or experience a concrete artistic form.
to tackle; to address (a topic)
La serie aborda la memoria histórica sin ofrecer respuestas sencillas ni personajes planos.
The series tackles historical memory without offering simple answers or flat characters.
Usage note Takes a direct object: «abordar un tema, un problema». In Latin America it also commonly means to board a plane or bus: «abordar el vuelo».
to allude to; to refer to
El título alude a un verso de Sor Juana que reaparece al final del ensayo.
The title alludes to a line by Sor Juana that reappears at the end of the essay.
Usage note «Aludir» always takes «a» and refers indirectly to a person, work, or idea rather than naming it explicitly.
to conceive; to envision
El arquitecto concibió el museo como un recorrido gradual de la oscuridad a la luz.
The architect conceived the museum as a gradual journey from darkness to light.
Usage note «Concebir algo como» presents the original concept or vision behind a work; the verb changes e→i in several forms.
to recreate; to evoke anew
El vestuario recrea la época sin copiar exactamente las prendas conservadas.
The costumes recreate the period without exactly copying the surviving garments.
Usage note «Recrear» means to create a representation of something from another time or context; «recrearse» has different meanings.
to endure; to last
Sus canciones han perdurado porque cada generación encuentra algo propio en ellas.
Her songs have endured because each generation finds something of its own in them.
Usage note «Perdurar» emphasizes continuing to exist or remain influential over a long period.
to become established; to gain acclaim
La escritora se consagró con una novela que obtuvo varios premios internacionales.
The writer established her reputation with a novel that won several international awards.
Usage note For an artist, «consagrarse» means to achieve lasting public or critical recognition; it is pronominal.
innovative
El montaje fue innovador no por la tecnología, sino por la participación del público.
The production was innovative not because of the technology, but because of audience participation.
Usage note «Innovador» describes something that introduces a genuinely new method, form, or idea.
transgressive; boundary-breaking
Lo que resultó transgresor en 1975 puede parecer convencional al público actual.
What was transgressive in 1975 may seem conventional to today's audience.
Usage note In cultural criticism, «transgresor» describes a work that deliberately challenges accepted norms or boundaries.
timeless
La escenografía evita referencias históricas para dar al conflicto un carácter atemporal.
The set avoids historical references to give the conflict a timeless quality.
Usage note «Atemporal» has one form for both genders and describes something not tied to a specific historical period.
deliberately
El narrador oculta deliberadamente la edad del protagonista hasta el último capítulo.
The narrator deliberately conceals the protagonist's age until the final chapter.
Usage note «Deliberadamente» signals that an artistic or communicative choice is intentional rather than accidental.
beyond
Más allá de su belleza visual, el mural denuncia el desplazamiento de la comunidad.
Beyond its visual beauty, the mural denounces the displacement of the community.
Usage note «Más allá de» extends an analysis past an obvious aspect and often introduces a deeper interpretation.
around; concerning
El festival organiza varios debates en torno a la relación entre arte y tecnología.
The festival is organizing several debates around the relationship between art and technology.
Usage note In abstract contexts, «en torno a» means concerning or centered on a subject, not physical movement around it.
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